信用创造货币说——有关货币的一种迷思
信用创造货币说简介
信用创造说认为货币产生于银行的信用(借贷)行为。货币是由银行记账凭空产生的,而不来自于政府垄断、商品货币等其他因素。因而货币可以无成本、无限量地被创造出来。
假设银行向客户发放一笔20万元的贷款。其资产负债表的变化如下:
资产 负债 客户贷款 +20万 客户存款 +20万
客户的贷款同时被记为其在该银行的存款。这样20万元的货币即以记账的方式被创造出来了。这不以其他客户的存款(deposit)或任何银行的既有储备(reserve)为前提条件。的确,现实中银行贷款业务正是按上述记账方式进行的。
信用货币派认为这才是基于真实世界所归纳出的正确理论,而认为教科书里的传统看法——银行通过先吸收存款再发放贷款——是幼智的。
对信用创造货币说的批评
批评者认为信用创造货币说片面地强调了银行的记账形式提供了信用无限扩张的可能性,而没有考虑结算(settlement)对信用无限膨胀的限制。由于存在结算压力,储备是应对结算的必要的安排。可以作为储备的资金才是货币(money),而以存款形态存在的信用(credit)不是真的货币,仅是货币替代物(money substitute)。货币与货币替代物合称为通货(currency)。信用创造货币说混淆了货币和货币替代物,因而不能正确认识到:信用不是无限增长的,货币限定了其可以扩张的边界。
信用货币派的反驳
信用货币派当然不接受上述批评。其反驳的方式是否定结算在现实银行业务中的必要性。例如,Werner (2015) 认为:
“Bank credit creation does not matter, since banks will gradually lose the deposits." --- This argument is often used to defend the fractional reserve or financial intermediation theories. However, banking operates within a closed accounting system: Deposits are bank liabilities and thus can only stay bank liabilities, on the balance sheet of a bank, even after transfer. They are a record of what Bank A owes, and the creditor (in this case, ironically, the borrower of the loan) can re-assign this debt of Bank A to some other bank. But of course it stays the debt of bank A... So deposits 'lost' can only go to other banks, and thus become an inter-bank liability. In other words, once a deposit has been created and transferred to another bank (Bank B), in this instance the first bank (Bank A) has received a loan from Bank B. If the receiver bank B is willing to 'accept' the transfer of the deposit, this is equivalent to the receiver Bank B giving credit to the first Bank A. So the balance sheet of the first Bank A only reflects a swap of a 'customer deposit' for a liability to another bank. Sorting out and netting such interbank liabilities is the original raison d'être of the interbank market. As long as banks create credit at the same rate as other banks, and as long as customers are similarly distributed, the mutual claims of banks on each other will be netted out and may well, on balance, cancel each other out. Then banks can increase credit creation without limit and without 'losing any money'. This has been recognised even by supporters of the fractional reserve theory of banking: Samuelson (1948) mentions --- though fails to emphasize --- that banks do not lose any reserves when they all create credit at the same pace and have equally dispersed customers. It is a mystery why Samuelson did not recognise this as approximating the standard case, and instead chose to highlight a hypothetical and highly unsual special case where a bank will pay out a subsequent banking crisis, since even with higher capital requirements, banks could still continue to expand the money supply, thereby fuelling asset prices: Some of this newly created money can be used to increase bank capital... This was demonstrated during the 2008 financial crisis.
首先,Werner否定了银行对个人结算的必要性。当顾客将存款从A银行转向B银行时,A银行只是将对顾客的债务转为对B银行的债务。在这种过程中不会发生顾客将货币替代物转换为货币的结算行为。这在现代经济中是常态。例如人们已经普遍采用电子支付。电子支付只是账户间的借贷记账,并不涉及真的现金交易,因此不会发生结算。
进一步地,Werner否定了银行间结算的必要性。Werner假设了这样的情形:各个银行以相同的速率创造信用,而消费者在各银行间均匀地分布。这样,通过银行间的清算,各银行间的债权、债务完全相互抵消。在这种情形下,银行间的结算就没有必要发生了。因此,银行不再有准备金压力,可以无限制地扩大信用了。
信用货币派的反驳是错误的。其错误是根本性的
如果说上述情形如Werner所宣称的那样是标准的情形,那么在现实中我们不应当观察到银行面临准备金压力。但是,现实中我们却观察到活跃的银行间市场。例如,美国的银行通过联邦资金市场(federal funds market)开展银行间的准备金借贷。因此我们说,Werner的假设被现实的市场运行机制证伪了。各银行并不以相同的速率创造信用,消费者在各银行间也并不均匀地分布。
事实上,市场正是通过不同步、不均匀的市场主体间的交易来发现隐藏的消费者偏好的。这一知识的发现过程通过对货币的供需平衡来实现。通过否定市场主体的不同步、不均匀,信用货币派否定了市场机制的必要性。对于信用货币派而言,真正的货币也因为没有存在的必要(没有被交易的必要)而被否定掉了,取而代之的是对信用的记账,并沐㺅而冠地将信用误称为货币。因此信用货币派制造了无限货币的乌托邦,其本质是反市场的。信用货币派的政策主张也必然是反市场的,例如Werner鼓吹对信用创造实行分配,使货币流向生产部门而非金融部门,从而杜绝金融资产价格的泡沬化。这样的政策只能造成资本市场的进一步的扭曲(对忽视市场机制的经济流派「如英国古典政治经济学」的深刻批判,详见Rothbard)。
货币和信用关系的实质——时间偏好
前面的分析表明,信用货币派的错误在于不理解货币和信用的关系,甚至通过消灭前者来造成二者的混同。事实上,货币和信用是不同的东西,二者服从数量关系:货币/信用=准备金率rr,其倒数为货币乘数:信用/货币=货币乘数mm。如Voskuil深刻地指出的,这一数量关系反映市场参与者的时间偏好(时间偏好指相比未来消费,人们对现在消费的偏好程度)。因为货币反映了当期的贮藏(hoarding)(或流动性),反映当期的消费,而信用反映了对未来的投资。当时间偏好越低(高),准备金率越低(高),货币乘数越大(小)。信用相对于货币的扩张不是无限的,它取决于市场参与者的时间偏好水平。
参考文献
Rothbard, Murray N. Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought (2 volume set). Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1995.
Voskuil, Eric. "Cryptoeconomics. Fundamental Principles of Bitcoin." (2020).
Werner, Richard A. "A lost century in economics: Three theories of banking and the conclusive evidence." International Review of Financial Analysis 46 (2016): 361-379.