女性生态学家的早期历史与进展：强调研究贡献（Part 1）【文献翻译】

作者：Langenheim, J. H. (1996). Early history and progress of women ecologists: Emphasis upon research contributions. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 27(1), 1–53. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.1

原文：https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.1

翻译：ChatGPT 3.5

排版：深海

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摘要：虽然女性在生态学领域日益突出，但对她们在生态学历史上克服个人和社会障碍取得进展的报告，为了解她们的研究成就提供了有趣的见解。本文根据她们获得博士学位的日期，即职业生涯开始的事件，将挑选的主要为美国女性生态学家划分为五个时间段进行介绍。首先介绍了1900年之前的早期生态学家，然后简要概述了10位早期先驱（1900年-1934年）、16位后期先驱（1935年-1960年）以及28位第一波现代人（1961年-1975年）。由于在1975年之后获得博士学位的女性较多，本文无法讨论这个时期的个体。在研究贡献的背景下讨论了以下问题：1）激励因素，2）研究生教育和进入的子领域，3）导师和榜样，4）就业，5）婚姻和家庭约束，以及6）认可。这些问题与近年调查的1976年之后获得博士学位的女性数据进行了比较。联系了每位仍然在世的被选女性，以获取她对自己研究的评价；156篇研究引文展示了所研究主题的重要性和范围。自1900年以来，虽然进展稳定但缓慢，但女性生态学家在职业发展中仍存在一些性别平等方面的问题。然而，这些问题现在更加被明确认识和解决。

Abstract Although women are increasingly prominent as ecologists, a report on their progress through the history of ecology in overcoming personal and societal obstacles provides interesting insights regarding their research achievements. Selected, predominantly American, women ecologists are presented within five time frames according to the date of their PhD, an event marking the beginning of their careers. A general view is given for pre-1900 Protoecologists, followed by brief professional sketches for 10 Early Pioneers (1900–1934), 16 Late Pioneers (1935–1960), and 28 members of the irst Modern Wave (1961–1975). The relatively large number of women who earned doctorates after 1975 precludes discussion of individuals from this time in this review. The following issues are discussed in the context of their research contributions: 1) motivating factors, 2) graduate education and subfield entered, 3) mentors and role models, 4) employment, 5) marriage and family constraints, and 6) recognition. These issues are compared with data from recent surveys for post-1976 women doctorates. Each selected woman still alive was contacted for her assessment of her research; 156 research citations display the significance and range of subjects studied. A steady, albeit slow, progress since 1900 is evident, although some problems regarding gender equality in professional development of women ecologists persist. These issues, however, are now more clearly recognized and addressed.

关键词：女性生态学家的研究；生态学历史中的女性；性别问题。

Key Words: women ecologists’ research; women in history of ecology; gender issues.

引言 INTRODUCTION

在1988年，我希望不再需要讨论女性生态学家的贡献，因为我们会被认同为生态学家（81）。尽管女性在生态学领域变得越来越突出，但考虑女性生态学家在克服个人和社会障碍方面所取得的进展，尤其是在研究贡献方面，仍然显得及时和有益。展示她们研究的引文揭示了女性贡献的重要性以及所研究主题的非凡范围。

In 1988 I hoped that there would be no further need to discuss the contributions of women ecologists because we would be recognized just as ecologists (81). Although women have become increasingly prominent as ecologists, it still seems timely and useful to consider the progress women ecologists have made in overcoming both personal and societal obstacles, particularly with regard to research contributions. Citations exemplifying their research reveal the significance of women’s contributions and the extraordinary range of subjects studied.

女性生态学家显然在“自我意识生态学”（100, 106）发展初期，即世纪之交时期，取得了一定的进展，尽管稍显缓慢。起初，她们抓住机会获得高级学位，并主要用于教学，虽然有少数人成功从事研究。在经历了上世纪30年代的经济大萧条、40年代的战争以及50年代的战后时期后，获得博士学位的女性比例有所下降。然而，一些现在有影响力的女性生态学家在这些困难的年代仍然坚持获得了博士学位。随着环境和女权运动在20世纪60年代和70年代的巧合，获得博士学位的女性生态学家数量增加，她们在主要机构获得的职位也增加了。因此，这些女性有更多机会通过自己的研究以及在研究型大学担任博士生和博士后研究员来影响生态学。此外，获得重要奖项并在各种专业学会中担任领导职务的人数也在增加。我将讨论这些成功女性在实现这一地位时克服的障碍。

Women ecologists clearly, albeit somewhat slowly, have made progress since the beginnings of “self-conscious ecology” (100, 106) near the turn of the century. Initially, they took the opportunities to obtain advanced degrees and used these primarily to teach, although a few succeeded in doing research. The percentage of women obtaining doctoral degrees dropped through the 1930 depression years, the 1940 war years, and the 1950 postwar years. However, some now-influential women ecologists persisted to obtain doctorates through these difficult years. Following the coincidence of the environmental and women’s movements in the 1960s and 1970s, the number of women ecologists with doctorates increased as did the positions they obtained in major institutions. Thus these women had increased opportunities to influence ecology through their own research and by having their own doctoral students and postdoctoral fellows at research-oriented universities. Furthermore, the numbers that have received prestigious awards and assumed leadership roles in various professional societies have increased. I discuss the obstacles these successful women have overcome in achieving this status.

生态学是一个众所周知的异质领域，在1894年（100, 106）之前对其界限的定义更加困难。然而，我认为将19世纪的一些女性自然学家列为“原生生态学家”（106）是合适的。在对1900年之前的这一时期进行了一般性讨论后，我强调了一组在1976年之前获得博士学位的女性生态学家。随之而来的大量博士学位获得者使本文只能对她们的进展进行一般性评估，而不能继续讨论她们的个体贡献。尽管大多数讨论的女性是美国人，但还有少数是英国和加拿大人。为了使进展更加有序，根据她们获得博士学位的日期，即职业生涯开始的事件，将女性分为五个时间段进行分组。我与在世的生态学家进行了交流，以获取关于她们的数据；她们的研究重要性是基于她们自己的评估以及其他在她们子领域工作的人的建议。

Ecology is a notoriously heterogeneous field, and boundaries are even more difficult to define before the recognition of self-conscious ecology in 1894 (100, 106). However, I thought it appropriate to include a few women naturalists from the nineteenth century as “protoecologists” (106). Following general discussion of this pre-1900 period, I emphasize a selected group of women ecologists who obtained PhD degrees before 1976. The large burst of women with doctorates who followed allows in this paper only a general evaluation of their progress, rather than a continued discussion of their individual contributions. Although most of the women discussed are Americans, a few are British and Canadian. To facilitate a sense of progression, the women are grouped in five time frames according to the date they obtained their PhD degrees, an event marking the beginning of a professional career. I communicated with the living ecologists to obtain data regarding them; the significance of their research is derived from their own assessment and suggestions from others working in their subfields.

在她们的研究贡献背景下，使用不同的女性作为例子，讨论了以下问题：1）研究和传播生态信息的动机（通过教学和/或研究），2）研究生教育的可获得性和子领域的重点，3）导师和榜样作为动力或支持者，4）就业，例如在能够进行高水平研究的主要机构获得工作的机会，5）家庭对职业的限制，以及6）通过科学学会选举为官员和获得重要奖项的贡献的认可。其中一些问题与1987年对200名女性的调查数据（81）以及近期考虑女性生态学家职业各个方面的出版物进行了比较。最后，我通过时间评估进展。

In the context of their research contributions, the following issues are discussed using different women as examples: 1) motivation to study and to disseminate ecological information (by teaching and/or research), 2) availability of graduate education and the emphasis in subfields, 3) mentors and role models as motivators and/or providers of support, 4) employment, such as availability of jobs at major institutions in which a high level of research is possible, 5) family constraints on careers, and 6) recognition of contributions by election as officers of scientific societies and selection for prestigious awards. Some of these issues are compared with data from a 1987 survey of 200 women (81) and from recent publications that consider various aspects of women ecologists’ careers. I conclude by evaluating progress through time.

1900年之前的原生生态学家和保育主义者 PRE-1900 PROTOECOLOGISTS AND CONSERVATIONISTS

在17、18和19世纪，女性环游世界研究自然历史，例如英国女性玛丽·金斯利（91）。对这个时期的讨论有限，部分原因是这些勇敢和富有冒险精神的女性的壮举应该得到单独的关注。Bonta（14, 15）指出，即使美国女性的自然历史研究得以发表，也“因为在18、19和20世纪早期的社会中，女性的地位被忽视了。女性被视为业余爱好者，即使在同一领域取得了巨大声誉的专业男性往往接受的专业培训与女性相同甚至更少”（14, p. xiv）。

Women traveled around the world to study natural history during the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, e.g. Englishwoman Mary Kingsley (91). Discussion of this period is limited, partially because the exploits of these courageous and adventuresome women should receive separate attention. Bonta (14, 15) points out that natural history studies by American women, even if published, “had been overlooked in standard chronicles of natural history because of women’s position in society during the eighteenth, nineteenth, and early twentieth century. Women were viewed as amateurs, even though professional men in the same fields who had achieved great renown often had the same amount or even less professional training than the women” (14, p. xiv).

玛利亚·西比拉·梅里安（Maria Sibylla Merian）在17世纪和18世纪的壮举令人惊叹。在与丈夫离婚后，她从阿姆斯特丹市获得资助，在52岁时带着女儿前往苏里南，为热带植物和昆虫绘制插图；她于1705年和1719年发表了关于昆虫变态的深刻见解，并附有精美的雕版图（110）。她之前曾出版过三卷本[1679年、1683年和1719年]的《毛虫的奇妙变态和（它们的）独特植物营养》。然而，由于她不幸没有将自己的发现融入现有的科学知识体系中，她被认为是一个“变态观察者，而不是变态研究者”（63, p. 22）。她的成就更令人难以置信，因为即使在19世纪，女性出版除了通俗观察之外的任何内容都很困难。

The seventeenth and eighteenth century exploits of Maria Sibylla Merian are amazing. After divorcing her husband, she obtained a grant from the city of Amsterdam and at age 52 traveled with her daughter to Surinam to illustrate tropical plants and insects; she published her insightful ideas on metamorphosis of insects along with beautifully engraved plates in 1705 and 1719 (110). She had previously published three volumes [1679, 1683, and 1719] on The Wonderful Transformation of Caterpillars and (Teir) Singular Plant Nourishment. However, because she unfortunately did not integrate her discoveries into the existing body of scientific knowledge she has been considered a “connoisseur rather than an investigator of metamorphoses” (63, p. 22). Her accomplishments are the more incredible because women even in the nineteenth century had difficulty publishing anything other than popularized observations.

19世纪的一位在明确表达她的观点方面表现出色的女性是埃伦·斯沃洛（理查兹），罗伯特·克拉克将她称为“创立生态学的女人”（30，标题）。斯沃洛是一位开创性的女性化学家，于1870年获得瓦萨学院的学士学位，成为第一位被麻省理工学院录取的女性特别学生。然后，在她的麻省理工学院教授丈夫的支持下，她在那里开设了女性实验室。在1892年，她提出了“oekology”这一跨学科的科学概念，涉及工业健康和水质，从而预示了自20世纪60年代以来专业生态学家的应用生态学研究。然而，当在1894年正式定义生态学（在术语中去掉了最初的“o”）为植物生理学的一个分支学科，强调生物适应自然环境时，她的想法得到了很少的关注（100）。

Outstanding among women in the nineteenth century who clearly projected her ideas is Ellen Swallow (Richards), whom Robert Clarke identifies as “the woman who founded ecology” (30, title). Swallow, a pioneer woman chemist with a BA from Vassar in 1870, was the first woman admitted to MIT as a special student. She then, with the support of her MIT professor husband, opened the Women’s Laboratory there. In 1892 she presented the idea of “oekology” as an interdisciplinary science concerned with industrial health and water quality, thus anticipating the applied ecological studies of professional ecologists since the 1960s. Her ideas received little attention when in 1894 ecology was formally defined (dropping the initial “o” in the term) as a subdiscipline of plant physiology that emphasized adaptations of organisms to the natural environment (100).

然而，一些早期有影响力的生态学家，如弗雷德里克·克莱门斯和维克托·谢尔福德，确实提出了有关人类对自然环境影响的关键问题。美国女性在19世纪末也对保育产生了兴趣，并在20世纪初为女性在保育活动中的突出地位铺平了道路（109）。文学俱乐部使女性聚集在一起，妇女权利运动让她们接触到政治过程。休闲时间也为中上层阶级的女性提供了植物学、园艺、鸟类知识等机会。其中一些女性不仅记录了她们对自然的观察，还在各种期刊上撰写文章，鼓励公众保护自然之美（15）。

Some early influential ecologists, such as rederic Clements and Victor Shelford, however, did pose key questions regarding the impact of humans on the natural environment. American women also developed interests and organizations during the late nineteenth century that paved the way for women’s prominence in conservation activities during the early twentieth century (109). Literary clubs brought women together, and women’s rights movements exposed them to the political process. Leisure time also gave middle- and upper-class women opportunities for botanizing, gardening, bird lore, etc. Some of these women not only recorded their observations on nature, they also wrote articles in a variety of journals encouraging the public to conserve the wonders of nature (15).

在全国范围内，成立于1890年的全国妇女俱乐部积极向女性传达当时紧迫的政治、经济和社会问题，包括环境问题。女性也在早期（从1886年开始）参与奥德本协会（Audubon Society）的活动，例如保护猎鸟免受猎人的侵害，以及保护因女士时装需求导致濒危的有羽鸟类。她们在林业方面表现尤为活跃。例如，认识到需要培养管理和保护森林的训练有素的人，加利福尼亚俱乐部的女性们于1903年向州议会提交了一项提案，以在加利福尼亚大学伯克利分校设立一个林业学院。那时，美国境内仅有的三所林业学院位于东海岸。

Nationally, the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, founded in 1890, actively informed women about urgent political, economic and social issues of the day, including environmental concerns. Women were also involved early (starting in 1886) in Audubon Society activities, such as protection of game birds from hunters and protection of plumed birds from extinction due to ladies’ fashions. They became particularly active with regard to forestry. For example, recognizing the need for trained men to manage and protect the forests, the women of the California Club in 1903 presented a bill to the state legislature to establish a School of orestry at the University of California, Berkeley. At that time the only three schools of forestry in the United States were on the East Coast.

“尽管在国家保育大会上代表的组织的女性在当地社区是公开活跃分子，但在19世纪末的美国社会中，她们仍然接受着传统的性别角色，作为国家家庭、丈夫和后代的照顾者…”（109，第73页）。这些女性在向公众传达保护环境的必要性方面取得的卓越成就，为许多获得博士学位并在生态学领域获得专业职位的女性广泛的保育活动做了铺垫。

“Although the women of the organizations represented at the National Conservation Congresses were public activists in their local communities, they nevertheless accepted the traditional sex roles assigned to them by the late nineteenth century American society as caretakers of the nation’s homes, husbands and offspring …” (109, p. 73). The outstanding achievement of many of these women in bringing to the public the need for preserving the environment was a prelude to the extensive conservation activities of many women who obtained PhDs and managed to secure professional positions in ecology.

1900年至1934年间的学位：早期先驱 1900–1934 DEGREES: EARLY PIONEERS

在19世纪末，女性突破了科学领域研究生教育的障碍（154）。与此同时，伊利诺伊大学、芝加哥大学、内布拉斯加大学、明尼苏达大学和康奈尔大学等大学成为了新生态学领域的中心。尽管一些女性仅仅积极参与志愿者保育活动，但在这些早期，其他女性却在生态学领域获得了高比例的博士学位，例如在伊利诺伊大学，20世纪20年代之前的博士学位百分之百是女性，而在1920年至1929年间为50%（M Willson，个人通信），以及康奈尔大学的20世纪20年代之前的博士学位为50%（B Peckarsky，个人通信）。考虑到直到1920年美国才实现了妇女选举权，这些数字尤其重要。

Near the turn of the nineteenth century women broke through barriers to graduate education in science (154). Simultaneously, universities such as Illinois, Chicago, Nebraska, Minnesota, and Cornell became centers for the new field of ecology. Although some women were actively involved only in volunteer conservation activity, other women in these early days were obtaining a high percentage of the PhD degrees in ecology, e.g. 100% of pre-1920s PhDs, and 50% of those between 1920 and 1929, at the University of Illinois (M Willson, personal communication), and 50% of the pre-1920 doctorates at Cornell (B Peckarsky, personal communication). These are particularly significant figures considering that women did not get suffrage in the United States until 1920.

与卡内基华盛顿研究所赞助的研究有关的女性 Women Associated with Research Sponsored by the Carnegie Institution of Washington

埃迪丝·施瓦茨·克莱门茨（Edith Schwartz Clements）和伊迪丝·贝拉米·施里夫（Edith Bellamy Shreve）在生态学领域的活动比许多在世纪之交后获得学位的其他人更为知名；她们可能因为她们著名的生态学家丈夫而变得如此显眼。她们丈夫的大部分研究是在华盛顿卡内基研究所（CIW）的支持下进行的，这是一个自20世纪初以来在生理学和生态学研究方面发挥重要作用的私人基金会。然而，这两位女性在生态学方面的研究贡献是截然不同的。

Edith Schwartz Clements and Edith Bellamy Shreve are better known for their activities in ecology than are many others who earned degrees just after the turn of the century; they may have become so visible partially because of their famous ecologist husbands. The greater part of their husbands’ research was carried out under the auspices of Carnegie Institute of Washington (CIW), a private foundation whose funding has played a significant role in physiological and ecological studies since the turn of the century. These women’s research contributions to ecology, however, are quite distinct from one another.

弗雷德里克·克莱门茨鼓励埃迪丝·施瓦茨在他的指导下进行研究生学习（33）。她于1904年凭借有关“叶片结构与物理因素关系”的大量个体生态学论文获得了博士学位，成为内布拉斯加大学第一个获得植物学（以及生态学）博士学位的女性。她和弗雷德里克于1899年结婚，完成学位后，她成为他的研究各个方面的出色助手。他们两人都更喜欢一起工作而不是分开。事实上，在46年的婚姻中，克莱门茨夫妇只在一次分开了几个小时以上（164）。虽然埃迪丝的论文是她唯一的研究出版物（31），但因为她选择将大部分精力投入到协助丈夫的工作中，她利用了自己在植物插图方面的才华，出版了几本花卉绘画书籍（例如32）。她还与BW Allred合编了《植被动态》（2），该书于弗雷德里克于1949年去世后出版，她还写了一本关于克莱门茨夫妇在野外的冒险的书（33）。弗雷德里克显然在评论南非生态学家约翰·菲利普斯时认识到埃迪丝作为生态学家的潜力，“克莱门茨夫人今天会拥有那个位置…… [就像菲利普斯博士位列世界顶尖生态学家之一]…如果她不是专注于推动我的职业，而是以她自己的身份获得生态学家的认可”（164，第242页）。

Frederic Clements encouraged Edith Schwartz to do graduate work under his direction (33). With a substantial autecological dissertation on “The Relation of Leaf Structure to Physical Factors,” in 1904 she was the first woman to obtain a PhD in botany (as well as ecology) at the University of Nebraska. Edith and Frederic were married in 1899, and after finishing her degree, she became the exemplary helpmate in all aspects of his research. They both preferred being and working together to being separated. In fact, in the 46 years of marriage the Clements were separated only once for more than a few hours (164). Although Edith’s dissertation was her only research publication per se (31), because she chose to devote most of her energies to assisting with her husband’s work, she utilized her talents in botanical illustration, publishing several books of flower paintings (e.g. 32). She also compiled and edited (with BW Allred) Dynamics of Vegetation (2), published after Frederic’s death in 1949, and she wrote a book about the Clements’ adventures together in the field (33). Frederic apparently recognized Edith’s potential as an ecologist in her own right in his comments to the South African ecologist John Philips, “Mrs. Clements would hold that position today … [like that of Dr. Philips near the top of the world’s ecologists] … had she not devoted herself to furthering my career instead of winning recognition as an ecologist in her own right” (164, p. 242).

弗雷西斯·路易丝·朗（Frances Louise Long）是弗雷德里克·克莱门茨的另一位学生，她在内布拉斯加大学获得学士学位，而当克莱门茨搬到明尼苏达大学时，她在那里获得了博士学位（1917）。她发表了有关光合作用定量测定的博士学位论文（94），这一主题显示出克莱门茨赋予生态学中生理研究的重要性。当克莱门茨在1918年前往CIW时，朗成为了该研究所的一名研究助理，他们继续合作进行研究，合著了关于植物授粉和适应性等重要议题的几本重要著作（34，35）。当弗雷德里克获得CIW任命时，埃迪丝评论道，他也将被允许拥有（薪水）助手，但“‘只是妻子’将会为零工作同样努力”（164，第243页）。因此，埃迪丝·克莱门茨与弗朗西斯·朗之间的职业地位差异是明显的。

Frances Louise Long, another of Frederic Clements’ students, took her baccalaureate at Nebraska and her PhD (1917) at the University of Minnesota when Clements moved there. She published her PhD dissertation on the quantitative determination of photosynthesis (94), a topic indicating the importance Clements ascribed to physiological studies in ecology. When Clements moved to CIW in 1918, Long became a research associate there, and they continued their research collaboration, coauthoring several significant volumes on topics such as pollination and adaptation in plants (34, 35). When Frederic received his CIW appointment, Edith remarked that he would also be allowed a (paid) assistant, but a “‘mere wife’ would work just as hard for nothing” (164, p. 243). Thus was the difference in professional status between Edith Clements and Frances Long.

伊迪丝·贝拉米·施里夫以非常不同的方式在她的婚姻框架内职业工作，比埃迪丝·克莱门茨更为大胆，也更符合她那个时代的要求（16）。她于1902年在芝加哥大学获得化学和物理学学士学位，但从未完成博士学位。然后，她在高彻学院教授物理学，那里她遇到了在那里教授植物学的福雷斯特·施里夫。在1909年结婚后不久，他们前往了CIW在亚利桑那州的沙漠研究实验室。伊迪丝陪伴丈夫研究沙漠植被的分布，直到1918年生下女儿。虽然不知道她在多大程度上为丈夫的工作作出了贡献，但在那些早年，伊迪丝决定追求自己的职业。在这样做的过程中，她面对了“女性工作”的刻板观念，还必须与反对已婚女性独立工作的普遍偏见进行斗争。然而，她的丈夫在那个时代对此异常支持。弗雷斯特的传记作者（17）认为，他的平等态度可能来自于奎克派的成长背景；他的母亲也受过大学教育，他显然不会感到妻子有独立成就会威胁到他。

Edith Bellamy Shreve worked professionally within the framework of her marriage in a very different way and more daringly for her time than did Edith Clements (16). She took her baccalaureate at the University of Chicago in 1902 in chemistry and physics, but never completed her PhD. She then taught physics at Goucher College, where she met Forrest Shreve, who taught botany there. Shortly after their marriage in 1909, they went to the CIW’s Desert Research Laboratory in Arizona. Edith accompanied her husband to study distribution of desert vegetation, until the birth of their daughter in 1918. Although it is not known how much she contributed to Forrest’s work, sometime in those early years Edith decided to pursue a career of her own. In so doing, she confronted stereotyped ideas of “women’s work” and also had to fight the widespread prejudice against married women working independently. Her husband, however, was for that time unusually supportive. Forrest’s biographer (17) suggests that his egalitarian attitude probably came from a Quaker upbringing; his mother was also college educated, and he apparently did not feel threatened by a wife with independent achievements.

伊迪丝·施里夫在物理科学领域的背景使她（在约翰斯·霍普金斯大学的伯顿·利文斯顿的指导和CIW沙漠实验室主任DT McDougal的鼓励下）倾向于植物生理学研究，现在将其视为生理生态学。伊迪丝是一个实验家；她的大部分研究是在实验室中受控条件下进行的。她是一个富有想象力、专注并且独立思考的研究者，她发表了有关仙人掌（Cholla节段）自主运动的论文。她发现植物在夜间明显失水，在白天吸收水分，与1915年预期的模式相反（157）。她继续努力了解机制，几乎发现了仙人掌和其他多肉植物中的一种特殊的光合作用代谢方式。她还研究了确定叶片温度和蒸腾的方法（例如158、159），并对沙漠植物的季节性水分关系进行了重要的研究（160）。

Edith Shreves’ background in the physical sciences led her (after some tutelage from Burton Livingston at Johns Hopkins University and encouragement from DT McDougal, Director of the CIW Desert Laboratory) toward plant physiological studies in what would now be considered physiological ecology. Edith was an experimentalist; most of her studies were conducted under controlled conditions in the laboratory. She was an imaginative, dedicated, and independent-thinking researcher who published papers on the autonomic movements in cactus (cholla joints). She discovered that the plants apparently lost water during the night and took up water during the day, the opposite of patterns expected in 1915 (157). Her continued attempts to understand the mechanisms led her to the verge of discovering crassulacean acid metabolism, a specialized mode of photosynthesis in cactus and other succulents. She also worked on methods for determining leaf temperature and transpiration (e.g. 158, 159), and she produced a significant study of seasonal water relations in desert plants (160).

芝加哥-考尔斯家谱中的早期女性 Early Women in the Chicago-Cowles Genealogy

为了追溯跨足1900年至1975年时间段的几代女性生态学家的起源，我描述了受到20世纪初芝加哥大学HC Cowles影响的植物生态学家的主要教育家谱。考尔斯创立了“地理生态学学院”，将长期的景观变化与植被变化联系起来，强调了生理学的重要性。这一家谱进一步展示了杰出男性生态学家（如Shelford、Cooper、Oosting、Buell、Billings、Marr和Mooney）在越来越多的大学中的作用，他们支持了成为生态学重要贡献者的女性。

To trace the origins of several generations of female ecologists that span the time 1900–1975, I describe the major pedagogical genealogy of plant ecologists influenced by HC Cowles at the University of Chicago at the turn of the century. Cowles founded the “School of Physiographic Ecology,” which linked long-term landscape changes to vegetational change and emphasized the importance of physiology. This genealogy further shows the role that prominent male ecologists (e.g. Shelford, Cooper, Oosting, Buell, Billings, Marr, and Mooney) played at an ever-increasing number of universities in supporting women who have become prominent contributors to ecology.

尽管Emma Lucy Braun于1914年在辛辛那提大学获得博士学位，但她受到考尔斯学派观点的影响很大（她的论文题目是“辛辛那提地区的地理生态学”），因此她被纳入了这个教育家谱。Braun的生态学兴趣是由她的学校教师父母激发的，他们带着亲近的家人探索了辛辛那提周围的森林。她的姐姐安妮特是一位杰出的昆虫学家，两姐妹一直生活和工作在一起。这不仅提供了互相支持的机会，还使得她们能够在整个东部落叶森林中进行广泛的野外研究。在女性野外科学家罕见的时候，她们在应对月光酿酒者和阿巴拉契亚山脉“偏远”地区条件等问题时取得了显著的成果。

Although Emma Lucy Braun took her PhD at the University of Cincinnati in 1914, she was so influenced by Cowlesian views (her dissertation topic was “The Physiographic Ecology of the Cincinnati Region”) that she has been included on this pedagogical tree. Braun’s interest in ecology was stimulated by her schoolteacher parents, who took their close-knit family to explore forests around Cincinnati. Her older sister Annette was a distinguished entomologist, and the two sisters lived and worked together. This not only provided mutual support but made possible their extensive field studies throughout the eastern deciduous forest. Together they dealt effectively, at a time when women field scientists were uncommon, with such problems as moonshiners and the “backwoods” conditions in the Appalachian Mountains.

Lucy Braun的职业生涯也在辛辛那提大学。她于1925年成为植物学助理教授，于1946年升任植物生态学教授。她于1948年退休，以便有更多时间进行研究，并于1964年获得大学荣誉理学博士学位。与当时女性教师通常的情况不同，Braun有13位硕士学生和一个博士生。这些硕士学位中有九位是女性；其中几位的论文得到了发表，但关于这些女性的职业信息并不可用。

Lucy Braun’s professional career was also at the University of Cincinnati. She became an Assistant Professor of Botany in 1925 and rose to Professor of Plant Ecology in 1946. She retired in 1948 to have more time for her research and was granted an honorary Doctor of Science degree by the University in 1964. Contrary to the usual situation for women faculty at the time, Braun had 13 MA students and one PhD. Nine of the MA degrees were earned by women; several of their theses were published, but information is not available about the women’s careers.

Braun发表了大量的作品，她的出版物中充满了独立感：她是四本书的唯一作者，在20种期刊中发表了180篇文章。她的研究“恰逢植物生态学领域被认为是一门科学学科的时候”（175，第83页）。事实上，她的研究被誉为“发展该学科的重要工具”；她最伟大的成就之一是她在1950年出版的巨著《北美东部落叶森林》（19），其中引用了她许多重要的期刊文章。这本书代表了25年的实地工作，最初是在特定地区进行的，然后在过去的10–15年里，她在整个落叶森林范围内行进了6.5万英里。Fosberg（55，第67页）写道：“只能说这是一部权威性的著作，它在美国生态学或植被科学中从未达到过的水平，至少在任何同等重要性的作品中都没有达到过。”这位非凡的女性经常是“第一个女性”，例如生态学会（ESA）的第一位女性官员 — — 副主席（1935年）和主席（1950年） — — 以及第一个获得以她名字命名的ESA奖项的女性（Braun生态学卓越奖）。她被Cranbrook科学研究所授予了教皇奖章，称她是“美国主要生态学家之一”，并表示她的著作应与Kerner的Des Pflanzenleben der Donaulander、Schroter的Das Pflanzenleben der Alpen和ansley的Vegetation of the British Isles并列放在同一书架上（51，第10页）。

Braun published prolifically, and there was an air of independence in her publications: She was sole author of four books and 180 articles in 20 journals. Her research “coincided with the time when the field of plant ecology was becoming recognized as a scientific discipline” (175, p. 83). In fact, her research was hailed as “instrumental in the development of that discipline;” one of her greatest achievements was her monumental book in 1950, Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America (19), in which many of her significant journal articles are referenced. It represents 25 years of field work, initially in specific areas, followed by traveling 65,000 miles during the last 10–15 years to know the deciduous forest as a whole. Fosberg (55, p. 67) wrote “one can only say that it is a definitive work, and that it has reached a level of excellence seldom or never before attained in American ecology or vegetation science, at least in any work of comparable importance.” This remarkable woman was constantly a “first woman,” e.g. the first woman officer of the Ecological Society of America (ESA) — Vice President (1935) and President (1950) — and the first woman to have an ESA award named in her honor (Braun Award for Excellence in Ecology). She was given the Pope Medal by the Cranbrook Institute of Science as “one of America’s major ecologists” with a statement that her book belongs on the same shelf with Kerner’s Des Pflanzenleben der Donaulander, Schroter’s Das Pflanzenleben der Alpen, and ansley’s Vegetation of the British Isles (51, p. 10).

虽然ESA的第一任主席Victor Shelford不是考尔斯的学生，但他受到了足够的影响，可以被认为是他的教育家谱的一部分。Shelford在这个早期阶段显然支持女性进行研究生教育，他在1918年至1927年之间有三位女性生态学博士，1938年有一位，1941年有另一位。相比之下，他的学生Charles Kendeigh在伊利诺伊大学与他重叠并继任时，51名博士生中没有女性。然而，当Shelford的女性博士生寻找与其学位相符的工作时，她们通常发现选项受限，只能在高中或女子学院教书，而在一些女子学院只有在保持未婚的情况下才能教书。例如，玛莎·W·沙克尔福德（PhD 1927）成为了俄克拉荷马女子学院的一名教员；没有证据表明她继续进行研究。

Although Victor Shelford, the first President of the ESA, was not a student of Cowles, he, too, was sufficiently influenced by him to be considered a part of his pedagogical genealogy. Shelford was apparently supportive of women in graduate education in these early days — he had three women PhDs in ecology between 1918 and 1927, one in 1938, and another in 1941. By contrast, his student Charles Kendeigh, who overlapped and succeeded him at the University of Illinois, had no women among his 51 PhD students. When the women PhDs who were Shelford’s students sought jobs for which their degrees seemed to qualify them, however, they generally found their options limited to teaching in high schools or women’s colleges, and in some of those colleges only if they remained unmarried. For example, Martha W Shackleford (PhD 1927) became a faculty member at Oklahoma College for Women; there is no evidence that she continued with research.

另一方面，Shelford的学生Minna Jewell（PhD 1918）在堪萨斯州农业学院（现在的堪萨斯州立大学）和桑顿初级学院教书，但除此之外，她还在威斯康星大学的Birge-Juday时代做出了显著的实验贡献，当时大多数研究集中在调查方面（10）。现在专门从事各个方面淡水生态学研究的研究人员已经认识到了Jewell在草原河流（70）、酸性湖泊中鱼类的pH影响（74）、地下水和湖泊的相互作用（71）以及淡水海绵（72、73）等主题上的早期和最有洞察力的工作（T Frost，个人通信）。因此，尽管当时女性面临障碍，她仍然是淡水生态学研究的真正先驱。她发表了大量的作品，其中包括生态学和生态学专论等ESA期刊，这些文章在1986年至1994年的出版物中仍然被引用（科学引文索引）。Jewell没有像Braun那样有很多机会指导研究生，但显然她“在年轻人中产生了相当大的影响”（10，第5页）。在Jewell从桑顿学院退休后，她在南美的一所女子学校教书，并继续在20世纪50年代发表关于淡水海绵的论文。尽管是ESA的创始会员并发表了重要的数据，但Jewell在她的一生中没有在该协会或湖泊生态学社区中获得认可。

On the other hand, Shelford’s student Minna Jewell (PhD 1918) taught at Kansas State Agricultural College (now Kansas State University) and Thornton Junior College, but in addition made significant experimental contributions to limnology during the Birge-Juday era at the University of Wisconsin when most research focused on surveys (10). Current researchers who specialize in various aspects of limnology have recognized Jewell’s work as some of the first and most insightful on topics such as prairie streams (70), pH effects of fishes in acid lakes (74), groundwater-lake interactions (71), and freshwater sponges (72, 73) (T Frost, personal communication). Thus, she was a true pioneer in limnological research despite the barriers for women at this time. She published much of her work in ESA journals, i.e. Ecology and Ecological Monographs, and these articles are still cited in publications from 1986–1994 (Science Citation Index). Jewell did not have as many opportunities to have graduate students as Braun did, but apparently she “had quite an influence on young people” (10, p. 5). After Jewell retired from Thornton College, she taught in a girls’ school in South America and continued to publish papers on freshwater sponges into the 1950s. Despite being a charter member of ESA and publishing significant data, Jewell did not receive recognition by either the Society or the limnological community during her lifetime.

与Lucy Braun和Minna Jewell相比，考尔斯的两位博士学生Mildred Faust和Harriet Barclay选择了更传统的职业，作为有才华的教师。Mildred Faust于1933年获得博士学位，并在锡拉丘兹大学植物系任教，影响了许多研究生的研究；她还积极参与了环保和环境教育方面的努力。Harriet George Barclay于1928年完成博士学位，并与另一位芝加哥大学植物学研究生结婚。这对夫妇随后去了塔尔萨大学，在那里，与她那个时代的许多已婚女性不同，Barclay不仅生育了孩子，还在1929年至1971年期间与丈夫一同在植物学系任教。她主要集中精力通过她对植物野外生态研究的传染性热情来激发许多本科和研究生学生，不仅在塔尔萨大学，还在各个野外站，特别是落基山生物实验室。作为高山爱好者，Barclay通过她广泛的采集大大增加了落基山脉和安第斯山脉植物的了解。她在俄克拉荷马州进行的持续的现场研究的结果主要发表在俄克拉荷马科学学院的论文集中。她还在保护方面担任了无数奖项的领导者，尤其是在俄克拉荷马州定位和保护独特的自然区域方面，她当选为俄克拉荷马名人堂的成员。

In contrast to Lucy Braun and Minna Jewell, Mildred Faust and Harriet Barclay, two of Cowles’s doctoral students, followed more traditional careers as gifted teachers. Mildred Faust obtained her PhD in 1933 and taught in the Botany Department at Syracuse University for her entire career, influencing many graduate students in their research; she was also active in conservation efforts and environmental education. Harriet George Barclay completed her doctorate in 1928 and married another University of Chicago botany graduate. The couple then went to the University of Tulsa where, unlike many married women of her time, Barclay had children but taught in the Botany Department alongside her husband from 1929 until her retirement in 1971. She concentrated much of her effort on carrying out the Cowlesian tradition of inspiring many undergraduate and graduate students through her infectious enthusiasm for field ecological studies of plants, not only at ulsa University but at various field stations, particularly the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory. An alpine enthusiast, Barclay greatly increased the knowledge of Rocky Mountain and Andean plants through her extensive collections. The results of her continuous field research in Oklahoma were published mainly in the Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science. She was also an unstinting leader in conservation, for which she received numerous awards, particularly for her efforts in locating and preserving unique natural areas in Oklahoma, and she was elected to the Oklahoma Hall of Fame.

非传统生态背景的女性 Women from Nontraditional Ecological Backgrounds

几位女性虽然没有受过专门的生态学培训，但在生态学领域做出了显著的研究贡献。Emmeline Moore是一位杰出的女性，于1914年在康奈尔大学获得了博士学位。在获得博士学位后，她遵循了未婚女性常见的模式，在女子学院（瓦萨大学）任教。然而，从1917年到1919年，她在美国政府的一个关于鱼类主要食物关系的项目上工作，这将她引入了未来的研究生涯。她是纽约州保护部门中第一位获得永久工作的女性，她在1920年的一个合作项目中首次对乔治湖的生物、化学和物理方面进行了调查。这项研究是由纽约州立法机构设立的，以确定如何增加鱼类生产力，取得了巨大的成功，生物调查扩展到包括整个纽约州60,000平方英里的流域（21）。1926年，Moore被任命为纽约州保护部生物调查主任。从1926年到1939年，她编辑的原始研究和随后的16份报告（共112份）仍然是有史以来对任何州水资源进行的最全面的科学考察（21）；它们强调了她与其他科学家的有效合作。尽管在这些年里她没有教学，但Moore通过雇佣学生和教师为她的夏季野外团队创造了与许多大学和大学之间的联系。这种野外培训对许多后来在其领域中著名的生物学家的职业发展非常重要（21）。Moore的工作在1927年又有了一个对于女性来说不寻常的事件：被选为美国渔业协会的主席。

Several women not specifically trained as ecologists made significant research contributions that clearly fit within the framework of ecology. Emmeline Moore was an extraordinary woman who earned a PhD degree at Cornell in 1914. Immediately after obtaining her doctorate, she followed the pattern common among unmarried women of teaching at a women’s college (Vassar). However, from 1917 to 1919 she worked on a US government project on primary food relations of fish, which led her into her future research career. She was the first woman given a permanent job in the New York State Conservation Department, where one of her first projects in 1920 was a collaborative survey of the biological, chemical, and physical aspects of Lake George. This study, which was set up by the New York State Legislature to determine how to increase fish productivity, was so successful that the biological survey was expanded to include the entire 60,000 square miles of the New York watershed (21). In 1926, Moore was appointed Director of the Biological Survey in the New York State Conservation Department. The original study and 16 subsequent reports published between 1926 and 1939 (all edited by Moore — 112) remain the most comprehensive scientific examination of any state’s water resources ever conducted (21); they emphasize her effective collaboration with other scientists. Although she did not teach during these years, Moore created a bond with numerous colleges and universities by hiring students and faculty for her summer field crews. This field training was significant in the development of careers of numerous biologists who would later become well known in their fields (21). Moore’s work was recognized by another event unusual for a woman in 1927: election as the President of the American Fisheries Society.

玛格丽特·莫尔斯·奈斯是另一位出色的先驱，她进行了富有洞察力的研究，可以被认为是生态学的研究。她与Edith Shreve一样，没有获得博士学位。在莫尔斯学院获得学士学位后，她进入克拉克大学攻读研究生课程。在那里，她遇到并嫁给了莱纳德·布莱恩·奈斯；在他获得博士学位后不久，他们搬到俄克拉荷马大学，他成为生理学系主任。她在1915年回到克拉克大学，为之前关于鹧鸪的食物的研究获得了动物学硕士学位。后来，她分别从莫尔斯学院和埃尔米拉学院获得了荣誉的博士学位。她的第一个重要著作《俄克拉荷马鸟类》（1925年）是与丈夫合著的；她的五个孩子热情地支持她的野外研究。在1927年，奈斯的丈夫加入了俄亥俄州立大学的教职。在俄亥俄州期间，Nice成为了一位知名的鸟类学家；在1927年至1936年之间的一个非常富有成果的时期，她发表了许多重要的论文，例如在1933年发表了一篇关于领域性的批判性论文（117）。她关于鸟类领地性的想法在1980年仍然被广泛引用，即使是在1941年关于这一主题的论文（119）发表后的39年之后（R McIntosh，个人通信）。然而，正是她关于雀鸟的生活史的专著（例如118、120）确立了她作为杰出鸟类学家的声誉（180）。她在1938年当选为威尔逊鸟类学会（后来的协会）主席，成为任何一家主要美国鸟类学会的第一位女性主席。事实上，在她后来的职业生涯中，她受到了许多杰出权威的高度赞扬，例如丁伯根赞扬她在“家庭圈子里的关心和牺牲”以及在“出色的创造力”的科学服务方面。通过你的作品，你在整个世界范围内被认识为那个为现在如此热情追求的种群研究奠定基础的人”（180，第438页）。恩斯特·梅耶尔进一步指出，“我一直认为她，几乎是独自一人，开创了美国鸟类学的新时代，也是对抗列出清单运动的唯一有效反动……她是这个国家（？第一个）分析本地群落的人之一。换句话说，就美国而言，她是一名左右开弓的先驱”（180，第438页）。她对研究的热情通过她的遗著的标题得到体现 — — 对我来说，研究是一种激情。她的出版物的完整清单似乎不存在，但据估计，她在鸟类方面发表了250多篇期刊文章，七本书的长度和3313份他人作品的评论。她通过她漫长的一生（她活到了90岁）继续着她的非凡活动，但随着年龄的增长，她越来越多地把注意力转向教育公众有关自然和环保的问题。

Margaret Morse Nice was another outstanding pioneer who did insightful studies that can be considered ecological. She, like Edith Shreve, did not have a PhD. After receiving her baccalaureate from Mount Holyoke College, she entered Clark University for graduate studies. There she met and married Leonard Blaine Nice; soon after he obtained a doctorate, they moved to the University of Oklahoma where he became head of the Department of Physiology. She returned to Clark in 1915 to obtain her MA in zoology for research done earlier on the food of the Bobwhite. She later received honorary Doctorate of Science degrees from both Mount Holyoke and Elmira Colleges. Her first major publication, The Birds of Oklahoma (1925), was coauthored with her husband; her five children enthusiastically supported her field studies as well. In 1927 Nice’s husband joined the faculty at Ohio State University. While in Ohio, Nice became a recognized ornithologist; during a very productive period from 1927 to 1936, she published for example, in 1933, a critical paper on territoriality (117). Her ideas regarding territoriality of birds were still heavily cited in 1980, 39 years after a 1941 paper (119) on the subject (R McIntosh, personal communication). It was her monographs on the life history of the Song Sparrow (e.g. 118, 120), however, that established her reputation as an outstanding ornithologist (180). She was elected President of the Wilson Ornithological Club (later Society) in 1938, becoming the first woman to serve as president of any major American ornithological society. In fact, throughout her later career she was highly praised by outstanding authorities, e.g. Tinbergen complimented her for “her cares and sacrifices in the home circle” and for service to science with “remarkable creative power.” “Through your works you have become known to ornithologists throughout the entire world as the one who has laid the foundation for population studies now so zealously pursued” (180, p. 438). Ernst Mayer further stated, “I have always felt that she, almost single-handedly, initiated a new era in American ornithology and the only effective countermovement against the list chasing movements …. She was one of the first people in this country (? the first) to analyze a local deme. In other words, she pioneered left and right, as far as the US is concerned” (180, p. 438). Her devotion to research is indicated by the title of her posthumously published autobiography — Research Is a Passion with Me. A complete list of Nice’s publications apparently does not exist, but the best estimates are that she published more than 250 titles on birds in journal articles, seven of book length, and 3313 reviews of the works of others. She continued her extraordinary activity through her long life (she lived to 90), but as she grew older she increasingly turned her attention toward educating the public about nature and conservation.

Nice写道，“具有才智的女性竟然不得不花这么多时间做体力劳动，真是一种悲剧”。“我们受过高等教育的有才华的女性必须充当厨师、清洁妇和保姆……”（180，第433页）。然而，在她的情况下，Trautman（180）指出，难以过分强调她的丈夫在奈斯的工作中所扮演的重要角色，他鼓励她并为她的研究和参加会议提供了资金支持。尽管如此，奈斯不得不不断地抗议“我不是家庭主妇，而是受过训练的动物学家”（14，第222页）。康拉德·洛伦茨写道：“玛格丽特·莫尔斯·奈斯是行为学的真正创始人”（14，第222页）。她的研究得到了很多认可，例如被选为英国鸟类学会和其他七个鸟类学或环保协会的荣誉会员。事实上，她从未获得博士学位，从未担任过大学的教职，几乎没有获得过研究资助，也没有获得过多少秘书协助，这使得她的成就更加显著。

Nice wrote about the “tragedy” that women of intellect should have to spend so much time in manual labor. “Our highly educated gifted women have to be cooks, cleaning women and nursemaids …”(180, p. 433). However, in her case, Trautman (180) indicates that it would be difficult to overemphasize the important role her husband played in Nice’s work, in encouraging her and providing the finances for conducting her researches and attendance at meetings. Nonetheless, Nice had to protest constantly that “I am not a housewife, but a trained zoologist,” (14, p. 222). Konrad Lorenz wrote that “Margaret Morse Nice was the real founder of ethology” (14, p. 222). She rightfully received much recognition for her research, e.g. being elected to honorary membership in the British Ornithological Union and seven other ornithological or conservation societies. The fact that she never earned a PhD, was never a faculty member of a university, and received few or no grants and little secretarial assistance makes her achievements even more noteworthy.

女性自然科学作家对生态的影响 Ecological Impact of a Woman Natural Science Writer

尽管瑞秋·卡森从未自称为专业生态学家，但她的著作对生态的影响使得必须将她包括在这个历史性的讨论中。她获得了动物学的学士和硕士学位（后者在约翰斯·霍普金斯大学的雷蒙德·珀尔指导下），但她一直对写作很感兴趣。她加入了渔业局（后来是渔和野生动物服务），成为该机构雇佣的首批非文职女性之一。被称为“受过良好训练、善于表达的生物学家……”（20，第70页），她在1942年从助理水生生物学家迅速升至生物学家和首席编辑，从1949年到1952年她辞去了服务，全职从事写作。

Even though Rachel Carson never proclaimed herself to be a professional ecologist, the ecological impact of her books makes it mandatory to include her in this historical discussion. She took both BA and MA degrees in zoology (the latter in part studying with Raymond Pearl at Johns Hopkins), but she was always interested in writing. She joined the Bureau of Fisheries (later the Fish and Wildlife Service) and was one of the first two women hired by this agency in other than clerical capacity. Known as a “well trained biologist with a gift for expression …” (20, p. 70), she moved rapidly from Assistant Aquatic Biologist in 1942 to Biologist and Chief Editor from 1949 until her resignation from the Service in 1952 to pursue writing full-time.

尽管卡森的著作《海风下》（1941年）、《环绕我们的海洋》（1951年）和《海岸边》（1956年）对自然史做出了重要贡献，但正是她最后完成的《寂静的春天》（24）产生了深远的生态影响。这本书于1962年出版，正值生态学概念开始为公众所知的时候。在其出版后的十年内，人们认识到《寂静的春天》是那些“通过改变人类思维方向而改变历史进程的罕见之作”（20，第227页）。它的成功被归因于她的生物学背景，她大胆地表达自己的担忧以及她出色的英语表达能力。这本书花了很长时间才写完；由于关节炎、癌症、溃疡等，她坚持与无数专家（如生态学家、鸟类学家、医生）进行全球通信，因为她说“长时间的深入准备是做好工作的不可或缺的条件”（20，第243页）。她非常关心如何在不引入错误的情况下简化复杂的技术数据。《寂静的春天》于1962年6月在《纽约客》上连载，于9月完整出版，立刻在全国引起轰动。

Although Carson’s books Under the Sea Wind (1941), The Sea Around Us (1951), and Edge of the Sea (1956) were important contributions to natural history, it was Silent Spring (24), her last completed book, that had far-reaching ecological impact. Its publication came at a time (1962) when the concept of ecology was just becoming known to the public. Silent Spring was recognized within a decade of its publication as one of those rare books that “change the course of history … by altering the direction of man’s thinking” (20, p. 227). Its success has been attributed to a combination of her biological background, her boldness in speaking her concerns, and her superb command of the English language. The book took a long time for her to write; ill with arthritis, cancer, ulcers, etc, she persisted in worldwide correspondence with countless experts (e.g. ecologists, ornithologists, physicians) because she said “long and thorough preparation is indispensable to do an effective job” (20, p. 243). She was deeply concerned about simplifying complicated technical data without introducing error. Silent Spring, serialized in The New Yorker in June, 1962 and published in its entirety in September, instantly created a sensation throughout the country.

该书遭到了激烈的攻击，最初激怒了化学和相关产业，以及强大的美国农业部。不断有人试图把卡森说成是“歇斯底里的女人”（14，第271页）。在整个争议中，卡森的主要关切是《寂静的春天》应该对政府政策产生持久影响。在国家科学院有关害虫控制和野生动物关系委员会的负面报告引起许多科学家的强烈反应后，肯尼迪总统要求对整个问题进行研究。1963年，由科学与技术办公室设立的农药委员会既批评了工业，也批评了联邦政府的机构，并认可了《寂静的春天》所提供的服务。该委员会的报告支持卡森的基本论点，即没有足够的科学知识来准确评估这些有毒化学品的风险。到1963年春天，这本书在英国几乎与在美国一样有名。《寂静的春天》在1963年分别在法国、德国、意大利、丹麦、瑞典、挪威、芬兰和荷兰出版，不久之后在西班牙、巴西、日本、冰岛、葡萄牙和以色列出版。在她生命的最后一年，也就是1964年，瑞秋获得了多项荣誉，例如“年度保育者”（美国国家野生动物联合会）、奥杜邦奖章（首位获得的女性）和美国地理学会奖章。最令人深感满足的认可是她被选为美国艺术与文学学院的会员，当时该学院只有三位女性会员。

The book was bitterly attacked, having initially offended the chemical and related industries as well as the powerful US Department of Agriculture. Continual attempts were made to discredit Carson as a “hysterical woman” (14, p. 271). Troughout the controversy, Carson’s chief concern was that Silent Spring should have a lasting effect on government policy. Bitter reaction by many scientists to a negative report of the National Academy Committee on Pest Control and Wildlife Relationships led President Kennedy to ask for a study of the whole issue. A Pesticide Committee, set up by the Office of Science and Technology, in 1963 both criticized industry and agencies of the federal government and recognized the service performed by Silent Spring. The committee’s report endorsed Carson’s basic argument that insufficient scientific knowledge was available to assess accurately the risk of these toxic chemicals. By the spring of 1963 the book had become almost as famous in England as it was in America. Silent Spring was published during 1963 in France, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Holland and shortly afterward in Spain, Brazil, Japan, Iceland, Portugal, and Israel. In 1964, the last year of her life, honors were piled upon Rachel, e.g. Conservationist of the Year (National Wildlife Federation), Audubon Medal (the first to a woman), and American Geographical Society Medal. The most deeply satisfying recognition was her election to membership in the American Academy of Arts and Letters, which at the time had only three women members.