[笔记] Elements of Argument
An argument is composed of at least three parts: the claim, the support and the warrant.
The Claim
Types of claim: Claim of facts, claim of value and claim of policy
Claim of Facts
A claim that asserts a condition has existed, exists or will exist and their support consists of factual information. To support a claim of fact, we need to produce sufficient and appropriate data from reliable sources：
Sufficient and appropriate data
Reliable authorities
Facts or inferences
How to defend a claim of fact?
1) Be sure that the claim is clearly stated;
2) Define terms that may be controversial or ambiguous.
3) Make sure that your evidence fulfills the appropriate criteria.
4) Make clear when conclusion about the data are inferences or interpretations, not facts.
5) Arrange your evidence in order to emphasize what is most important.
Sample：The 2017 Hurricane Season Really Is More Intense Than Normal
Cocaine Is Even dealier Than We Thought [原书]
* 原书所选的Sample是NYT八十年代的文章，虽然NYT目前可以正常访问，不过搜索功能和老文章似乎需要另外取路。因此我自己选取了类似的新文章作为例文供各位参考；自然，我个人的判断与选择不如原书精当，还请各位批评指出。
Claim of Value
A claim of value attempts to prove that some action, belief or condition is right or wrong, good or bad, beautiful or ugly, worthwhile or undesirable.
Two general area: aesthetics and morality.
How to defend a claim of value?
1) Try to make clear that the values or principles you are defending should have priority on any scale of values.
2) Suggest that adherence to the values you are defending will bring about good results in some specific situation or bad results if respect for the value is ignored.
3) Since value terms are abstract, use example and illustrations to clarify and make distinctions, especially comparisons and contrasts.
4) Use testimony of others to prove that knowledgeable or highly regarded people share your values.
Sample：Shopping and Other Spiritual Adventures in America Today [原书]
Our Constitution Wasn’t Built for This
Claim of policy
A claim of policy argues that certain conditions should exist. Almost always should or ought to or must is expressed or implied in the claim.
How to defend a claim of policy?
1) Make your proposal clear, and terms precisely defined.
2) If necessary, establish that there is a need for change.
3) Consider the opposing arguments.
4) Devote the major part of your essay to proving that your proposal is an answer to the opposing argument.
5) Support your proposal with solid data, but don’t neglect with the moral considerations and common-sense reasons.
Sample:
So That Nobody Has To Go To School If They Don't Want To [原书]
Blaming Medicaid for the Opioid Crisis: How the Easy Answer Can Be Wrong
Definition- how to definition the term in your essay?
1) Dictionary definition – it might be too broad or to narrow.
2) Stipulation – you are not free to invent the definition that no one will recognize.
3) Negation – it might be too extensive.
4) Examples
5) Extend definition
Sample:
Manwatching : a field guide to human behavior 书中选段。
Home 书中选段。
Well-being is most commonly used in philosophy to describe what is non-instrumentally or ultimately good for a person. The question of what well-being consists in is of independent interest, but it is of great importance in moral philosophy, especially in the case of utilitarianism, according to which the only moral requirement is that well-being be maximized. Significant challenges to the very notion have been mounted, in particular by G.E. Moore and T.M. Scanlon. It has become standard to distinguish theories of well-being as either hedonist theories, desire theories, or objective list theories. According to the view known as welfarism, well-being is the only value. Also important in ethics is the question of how a person’s moral character and actions relate to their well-being.
Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law.Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are the rights granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, and designs can all be protected as intellectual property.
就我的专业而言，这两个网站所提供的词条解释都是非常不错的范本。
The Support
Types of support: 1. Evidence: facts, statics and testimony from experts 2. Motivational appeals: values and attitudes of the audiences
Evidence
Types of evidence
Factual evidence: factual evidence appears most frequently as examples and statistics, which are a numerical form of examples.
Examples: to provide support for the truth of generalization.
Statistics: more effective in comparisons.
Sample: Economist-Daily chart一栏。
Opinions: interpretations of facts
Types of interpretations:1. causal connection 2. predictions about the future 3. solutions to problems 4.expert opinions
Sample: Daily Chart中的分析段落。
The Evaluation of Evidence
1) of factual evidence:
1. Is the evidence up to date?
2. Is the evidence sufficient?
3. Is the evidence relevant?
4. Are examples representative?
5. Are the examples consistent with the experience of the audience(reader)?
2) of statistics
1. Do the statistics come from trustworthy sources?
2. Are the terms clearly defined?
3. Are the comparisons between comparable things?
4. Has any significant information been omitted?
3) of opinions
1. Is the source of the opinion qualified to give an opinion on the subject?
2. Is the source biased for or against his or her interpretation?
3. Has the source bolstered the claim with sufficient and appropriate evidence?
Motivational appeals and values
Types of needs: physiological/ safety/ belongingness and love/ esteem/ self-actualization [* Maslow]
Values: values are arranged in a hierarchy but there are changes overtime and differences in age, sex, race, ethnic background, social environment, and religion.
The Evaluation of Appeals to Needs and Values:
1. Have the values been clearly defined?
2. Are the needs and values to which you appeal prominent in the reader’s hierarchy at the time you are writing?
3. Is the evidence in your argument clearly related to the needs and values to which you appeal?
The Warrant
Inferences, assumptions, beliefs and principles that is taken for granted. Every warrant or assumption rests on something else that gives it authority.
Types of warrants and its evaluation:
1) Authority
1. Is the authority sufficiently respected to make a credible claim?
2. Do other equally reputable authorities agree with the authority cited?
3. Are there are equally reputable authorities who disagree?
2) Generalization
1. Are sufficient examples given to convince us that a general statement is justified?
2. Are examples sufficient?
3. Are there sufficient negative instances to weaken the generalization?
3) Sign
1. Is the sign used appropriate as an indicator?
2. Is the sign sufficient to account for the claim?
3. Are negative signs available that might contradict the claim?
4) Cause and Effect
1. Does the cause given seem to account entirely for the effect?
2. Are other possible causes equally important as explanations for the effect?
3. Is it possible to prove that the stated causes produced the effect?
5) Comparison
1. Have all or only a few of the important dissimilarities been overlooked?
2. Are the similarities between the two situations greater than the difference?
6) Analogy
1. Is the analogy explanatory or simply descriptive?
2. Are there are sufficient similarities between two elements to make the analogy appropriate?
7) Values
1. Is the value one that the audience will regard as important?
2. Is the value relevant to the claim?
* Common Fallacies:
1) Hasty generalization
2) Faulty use of authorization
3) Post hoc or doubtful cause
4) False analogy
5) Ad Hominem – attacks on the man rather on the issue or the argument
6) False dilemma
7) Slippery slope
8) Begging the question
9) Straw man
10) Two wrong make a right
11) Non Sequitur – fallacy of irrelevance
12) Ad Populum – appeals to the prejudice of the people
13) Appeal to tradition
14) Faulty emotion appeals
*以上逻辑谬误的具体阐释（包括基础三段论）可以在任何一本Critical Thinking的书中找到更为详细的解释，推荐阅读英文原版书。
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Evaluation的部分为GRE AW写作提供了非常实用的指导。题库中任何一个Argument都可以按照这本书中给出的思路来分析，找出相应的逻辑漏洞；同样，对于组织Issue的论证结构也是有所助益的。
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Recommendation：
The truth about whole wheat and ‘whole-grain’ bread
纠正人们对于全谷物的一些误解，最后五点是非常好的分析范本。
