耶鲁大学公开课：心理学导论
1. 我们的情感、判断是我们大脑这个physical thing的产物。 神经元的反应：all or nothing, even when sensation is graded. 2. 酒精抑止脑部活动，先是抑制功能，然后是兴奋功能 3. 弗洛伊德的学说不被认为是科学，不列入心理系课程，倒是会列入文学系。科学应该“可证伪”，弗洛伊德的学说too subtle, too complex. 但人类心理微妙，的确是有的，例如投入越多就越喜欢，越是折腾人的入会仪式，人们反而更加喜欢这个协会；死亡相关的词汇无意识刺激，会让人更加nationalism. 提问环节，有人问，他的学说支持者如何解释现代社会的单亲家庭增加。 4. 认知心理学，一切可以习得，1万小时成专家，否认innate，著名的狗狗和铃声试验。 不规律的正向肯定，反而会让行为更加持续。例如儿童哭闹要母亲陪伴，拒绝多次，但偶尔答应一次，儿童下次会要求得更加执着。 但这个理论也有不足，人类的确有天生差异。而迷宫中的老鼠，不需要激励，也会努力找到出路。 5. 儿童对物体的认知，六个月，把东西挪开，仍会把手伸向原来的位置。可能是不能理解deceit, 可能是大脑控制部分没有发育完成（青少年也还没发育发成），不能控制手的动作。 Baby天生对社会有一定认知，新生儿凝视人类面孔的图片更久（和其他灵长类相比），看球的进攻和防守，会看更久他希望赢得对象。 人类特有的语言，会极大改变大脑的发育。 6.语言，也许是天生能力，也许是人类觉得有用而发展的能力。我们能理解没听过的话，会给听得懂的语言自动加停顿，会自动填空——我们有自上而下处理的能力，对声音也是一样。语音处理例子：从歌词改编来的儿歌，ants are my friends, they are blowing in the wind.婴儿知道哪种语言才是自己的语言。婴儿语法错误多，但自动会慢慢消失。父母对婴儿说话多少，并不影响婴儿的语言。用baby的语气跟他说话，也许有助语言吸收，也许只是平缓婴儿的情绪。12月前，婴儿对语音更敏感。青春期，第二外语学习能力下降，很少有人在语音、语法上没有问题， an accenet is hard to shake. 有研究说英语的人和韩语的人，语言结构不同是否影响思维？课上没有说结论。 每人学习语言速度不同，爱因斯坦4岁才说话。女性有微弱优势。有遗传影响。 中英文都学，和只学中文，中文到达某种程度的时间是一样的。学习语言种类多少，不影响学习某种语言的程度。儿童对声音敏感，不会混淆。 7.记忆常常不准确，即使是当下。 如果不是刻意，我们“看不到”变化, 如果这个人换了衣服，过一会儿我们再跟他说话，不会注意到。
8. 长期记忆的内容很多，但短期记忆的内容很少。如何让信息进入长期记忆，在大脑中重复信息是不够的，我们还需要组织信息，给信息赋予意义，理解是最有效的记忆方式。（Old trick: through vivid imagery: 海马体，认路有关，the way i find the campus is through hippocampus.）有的长期记忆，需要用力搜索去提取信息，例如中学同学的名字，你以为忘了，其实没有。“这种事情发生过”的感觉：一种解释是，这事的确刚刚发生，大脑错误判断为以前的事情。 我们为什么会遗忘？第一种解释是大脑退化，第二种解释是学到新的信息会干扰之前的信息，第三种解释是记忆线索（retrieval cues）变了。 我们不记得很小时候的事情，1-2岁时候的trauma是听大人讲述的。第一种解释是记忆线索变了，第二种解释是习得语言和手势后，语言改变了我们的记忆，第三钟解释是大脑记忆区域2-3岁才长好。 电影《记忆碎片》implicit memory and explicit memory: 不能形成新记忆的患者，做同一个游戏会越来越好，在电影中，假装这种病骗保险的人应该能够学会回避电击，他没有，因此被揭穿 通过暗示（Sam is a clumzy boy who always tears books）和引导性问题，虚假记忆会被输入（interviewers believe they see Sam tearing a book and they are not lying- they truely believe） -highschool yearbook 年鉴
9.爱。实验多是关于attraction，而不是love. LOVE: intimacy + passion + committment。亲密是指，你只想和这个人分享某些秘密和信息；passion, physical attracton or sex; committment，指决定长期在一起。感情有不同类型，可能具备上述0-3个因素。Empty love: 只有committment, 通常是感情变坏后的最后一个阶段。 Intimacy或committment如何产生： 1) big three: 空间接近性，相似，熟悉(nearby, similar, familiar) - the familar effect: we like the words in another language which we don't know we have seen 2) interesting four - the pratfall effect 失态效应: our liking for the competent person grows when they made a mistake - the feedback of good-looking people is more important to us - the gain and loss effect we are more sensative to change, becuase it means risk and opportunity, increasing opportunties of passing genes. In love, we are more attracted to person whose opinions of us grow positive than to person who always have high regards for us we are hurt by people who had high regards for us but their positive opinion fades - arousal misattribution effect 摆桥实验能否证明arousal misattribution? Men who choose the risky bridge are more likely to write sexy stories for the attractive actor and call her up. But it is not a random assignment, rather, more likely to be individual differences. family violence: one reason is fearing "if I leave, I or children will starve". Another reason is that people may misattribute the fear or screaming to love.
10. 进化论和心理学。 Our cognitive mechanism is also a product of natural selection for purpose of survival and reproduction. - adaptation and byproducts, like the back pain - 3 preoccupations of humans that are not adpatations: pornography, television and chocolates - an explaination: the more morning sickness in pregnancy, the more protected the baby is - growing up together diminishes sex desire, esp when you see mother taking care of that person Human rationality - in fact, we are not logic thinkers. Rather, heuristics (直观推断法) serve us well in evolutionary history, but may lead us astray: - framing effect: you could respond differently to a situation depending on how the options are framed, e.g. a hamburger ad saying "80% without fat" vs "20% fat" - loss aversion: people hate a certain loss - endowment effect: once you own sth, its value shoots up. As a loss, you treat it with bigger value, which mystifies economists and psychologists - brain not evloves for rate calculation - availability effect: think of more words with -ing than with -ng, overestimate the change of being killed by dramatic causes - confirmation bias: which parent will you give/deny custody to? The parent with both obvious advantages and disadvantages
11. Emotions Wrong idea: if I do not let emotions lead myself, I would be better-off. Examples of patients who lost character, or the ability to prioritize
12. Emotions 母亲提供food和comfort (and baby is afraid of strangers), 婴儿更喜欢comfort. 被父亲还是母亲养大，多大送daycare...does not make a big difference. 只有提供食物的iron mother,失去提供comfort的绒布mother, 猴子们被养在笼子里，然后，猴子疯了。Some early attachment is critical to the development of 灵长类动物。严苛的孤儿院里的孩子，barely fed, 会在社会发展和情感发展上遇到问题，一种从不满足，一种很冷漠。 但把小猴子和solitary猴子放一起，猴子的情况会改善。在现实生活中，有孤儿院的孩子和精神失常所的妇女在一起后，孩子得到cuddling，逐渐恢复正常。 如果父母给comfort很少呢？不太affectionate的父母，孩子也会不太affectionate, 但不清楚这是由于遗传，还是由于环境。 Animals are nice to non-kin. Animals give warning cries. 囚徒困境，得分最高的程序：start friendly, and do what he/she did last time (Tit for tat) 最后通牒效应。实验设计：给A10美元，让A给B，B随意拿走自己想要的数目，剩下的是A的。A可以选择accept或reject，reject的话两人都get nothing. 当B给A只留1美元的时候，很多人处于愤怒，会reject. 选择accept的是理性的人，但理性的人会被人利用。人们通常不敢惹非理性的人，被认为非理性的人具有某种优势。这也是美国南部、苏格兰等地注重culture of honor的原因，一个牛仔不能指望警察来保护你的牛，必须靠自己。在一个美国南北大学生实验中，南方来的人因为羞辱激起的愤怒更高——设计实验的人本人是美国南方人，刚来北方时候被北方人的rude震惊，背后原因是offending的代价不大。
13. Self and Other 本节开始，讨论差异性 性格差异的5个主要方面：ocean (openess - conscientiousness 尽责 - extrovertism - agreeableness - neuroticism) Intelligence: abstract reasoning + problem solving + capacity to acquire knowledge (one definition) G and S S: your ability on specific tests G: general intelligence Bell curve(贝尔曲线)： IQ matters immensely for everyday life and people's status in society
14. Sex 遗传因素不是inevitable,例如近视；文化因素not easy to fix, 比如认为胖美还是瘦美 动物世界，大多数雌性对生育投资多于雄性，少数相对均等，所以雌性choosy, 雄性bigger, more agressive, or evolve to woo 4-11岁，同性相斥，enhence sex differences
15 Morality Empathy. In-group, out-group, 很容易制造，简单到硬币分组，就可以make a group. What can bring them together, after all the confrontations? A common goal. 反思holocaust的成因操控，一种是去掉执行者的个体身份，一种是去掉victim的个人身份 People can be disgusting, used by Nazi. Intedependence, contact, 会让人们喜欢彼此, contact led to moral feeling. The military brings differen people together, and they like each other. Storytelling- invite you to take the perspective of others, and then you care more about them.
16. How We Think about Self and Other Some people are "connectors" / hubs / who know a lot of people. Six degrees of seperation. An actor in all kinds of movies and bad movies. The older you are, the more people you know. Some people have the gift. Power acquaitences are one reason why it is is good to go to Yale. - Self- Spotlight effect, 人们没那么注意你，可以多尝试，减少regret - Self - Transparency effect - we believe we are more transparent than we are. We constantly overestimate what others know. - Self- People systematically and dramatically view themselves as better than average. You often get feedback when you are good. In a normal, healthy mind, you think you are terrific, self-serving effect. You think the good things happen to you due to your terrifc-ness, and the bad thinkgs are due to accidents or misfortune. - Self - what we do makes sense. People feel uneasy at cognitive dissonance/inconsistence, and try to eliminate that. If you support Bush, you look for good news about him. What we don't choose is downgraded in comment. Morale: I must love my job given all the bad things. Hazing欺负新人. The group given $1 for the same work rated the work as much more funny than the group given $20. Therapy for free tends to be useless therapy. Too much of rewarding children has a danger.
Attribution - we tend to attribution others' actions to their personality characteristics. People give too much weight to the person, and not enough weight to the situation. Called the fundemental attibution error. 教授在讲台上the one thing he knows, 人们会认为他智商高，he must know many things. 扔硬币，让一个人提问，一个人回答，提问的人显得聪明 ，其实只是因为he knows the thing, "what's the name of my dog" "well, I don't know". 是因为如果投影仪坏了，人们会说，这个演讲的人不太好。人们分不清演员和他们所演的角色。西方更明显，东方环境因素多点，例如murder报道，西方更多讲murderer性格，印度更多what the situation is. Enhancement of self & oversimplification of other. 对于自己，我们知道自己是a cluster of situations和性格结合的产物，我们顺利时归因自己nature, 不顺利时候归因situation. 对于别人，We are less forgiving.
LIKING - Proxmity. Our best friend is usually in the same college. - Familiariy is itself a force for liking. 我们喜欢镜子里的自己，朋友喜欢照片里的我们，因为分别是每天看到的样子。课前闪过的照片，无论有没有记忆，我们会在之后的图片评分时更喜欢那些图。 - Similarity. We like people similar to us. Similarity predicts situation of marriage. Couples become more and more similar in the course of relationship夫妻相。 - People like good-looking people. Good-looking people are vievwed as smarter or nicer, and have an easier life. Parents are rougher to ugly children than to good-looking ones.
17. How We See Other People Information formulation - first impression matters a lot, because people have a confirmation bias. Not only about people - we form impressions very fast. - 皮革马里翁效应 尼基塔 the expectation matters, for individuals and groups. They told teachers some students were smart, (I gave you more attention) the children did show a jump in IQ.
Groups:stereotypes Categorize: educated guesses on novel things are crucial to our survive. But they are not always accurate: confirmation bias, from misleading data, moral problems. What generalizations are reasonable to make and what are not? Some effects are obvious, and some are subtle, including the "stereotype threat" - mentioning the negative stereotype associated with your group “your group/black/women are not good on math” damages your performance. 3 levels of stereotypes: public (public views on race change), private (some are not going to vote for black or women, but they won't say it), unconsious (but it affects) Test implicit attitudes: people are slower when they have to connect white with negative. Who cares? Sometimes half a minite matters in your life: who you will shoot. / When both recommendations are strong, you hire anyone, white or black; but when recommendation is just so so, and a judgement is needed, you are more likely to hire a white. Work need to be done to overcome this automatic response. A group can set up a system to minimize the effect, for example, 匿名的论文评价。
Mysteries - Sleep. Restore the worn-out body, immune system hard at work. 安眠药副作用：梦游吃东西、开车。Most dreams are bad, report of misfortunes. Bejing chased is the most frequent dream. One theory: side effect of memory consolidation, in backing up. - Laugher. Most reasons for laugher are not humor or joke. Laugher is social. 笑音音轨the laugh track，人们更容易笑。Aggression unleashed at sb, without real harm.
18-19 When things go wrong 精神分裂有遗传因素和环境因素。冬天出生的精神分裂患者比夏天多，冬天出现流行病或瘟疫， 还有猫屎中的寄生虫。另一种诱因是紧张的家庭环境stressful familiy environments. 工业化程度低的地方，这种疾病康复率高，也许因为人们相信这是短期的状况，也许因为吃药少。 Anxiety disorders. 1/ General anxiety disvoer may lead to depression, may related to childhood trauma. This makes you hyper-vigilant. You don't trust the world. 2/ Phobias. Not many people are afraid of cats. Preparedness theory. 3/ Obsessive-compulsive disorder 强迫症. 血清素相关药品treat well. 药物的物理效应是暂时性的，unless they develop coping skills. Disassociate anemia Personality disorder. 例如自恋、逃避、依赖、表演、边缘型borderline-awful to deal with、偏执-you think other people are against you. 反社会型与crime有关。
20 幸福 We adapt to the good and the bad. Our happiness returns to the normal level. The ending is important. Mild pain after a long torture makes you feel good. We don't know 50%-how the environment influences us, why some are influenced and some are not influenced.
up the odds of 增加概率
