天帝城(Indraprastha)
天帝城(Indraprastha)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Indraprastha ("City of Indra") was the capital of the kingdom led by the Pandavas in the Mahabharata epic. It is often thought to have been located in the region of present-day New Delhi(新德里) but there is no certainty. The city is sometimes also known as Khandavaprastha(甘味城), the name of a forest region on the banks of Yamuna river(亚穆纳河).
History
Indraprastha is referenced in the Mahabharata, a Sanskrit(梵文) Indian text compiled over a period of 800 years from around 400BCE. Primarily a story, it does nonetheless describe events that may in fact have happened. The Mahabharata records Indraprastha as being home to the Pandavas, whose wars with the Kauravas it describes. The location of Indraprastha is uncertain but Purana Qila in present-day New Delhi is frequently cited and has been noted as such in texts as old as the 14th-century CE. Purana Qila is certainly an ancient settlement but archaeological studies performed there since the 1950s[a] have failed to reveal structures and artefacts that would confirm the architectural grandeur and rich lives in the period that the Mahabharata describes. The historian Upinder Singh notes that despite academic debate, "Ultimately, there is no way of conclusively proving or disproving whether the Pandavas or Kauravas ever lived ...".
D. C. Sircar, an epigraphist, believes Indraprastha was a significant city in the Mauryan period, based on analysis of a stone carving found in the Delhi area at Sriniwaspuri which records the reign of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Singh has cast doubt on this interpretation because the inscription does not actually refer to Indraprastha and although "... a place of importance must certainly have been located in the vicinity of the rock edict, exactly which one it was and what it was known as, is uncertain." Similarly, remains, such as an iron pillar, that have been associated with Ashoka are not indubitably so: their composition is atypical and the inscriptions are vague.
As of 2014, the Archaeological Survey of India is continuing excavation in Purana Qila.
------------------------
Purana Qila
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Hindi: पुराना क़िला, Urdu: پُرانا قلعہ, translation: Old Fort)
Purana Qila is one the oldest fort among all forts in Delhi. Its current form was built by the Afghan king Sher Shah Suri, on the same site, perhaps of Indraprastha, believed to be the capital of the Pandavas.
Sher Shah raised the citadel of Purana-Qal'a with an extensive city-area sprawling around it. It seems that the Purana-Qal'a was still incomplete at Sher Shah's death in 1545, and was perhaps completed by his son Islam Shah or Humayun, although it is not certain which parts were built by whom.
It's located at the site of the legendary city of Indraprastha, that was founded by Pandavas on the banks of perennial river Yamuna, which is revered by Hindus since ages, points to the possibility of this site's history dating back to nearly more than 5000 years old. A Kunti Temple inside the Qila also exists, which is believed to be the place where Kunti, the mother of Pandavs lived. Consequently the fort is considered by some, to be 'the first city of Delhi'.
Researchers now confirm that up till 1913, a village called Indrapat existed within the fort walls. Excavations carried out by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at Purana Quila in 1954-55 (trial trenches) and again 1969 to 1973 by its Director, B B Lal have unearthed Painted Grey Ware dating 1000 B.C., and with a continuous cultural sequence from Mauryan to Mughal through Sunga, Kushana, Gupta, Rajput and Sultanate periods, confirming the antiquity of the fort.
Fort in Medieval Period
Fort was called as the inner pitamdel of the city of Dina-panah during Humayun's rule who renovated it in 1533 and completed five years later.Purana Qila and its environs flourished as the "sixth city of Delhi".
The founder of the Suri Dynasty, Sher Shah Suri, defeated Humayun in 1540, naming the fort Shergarh; he added several more structures in the complex during his five-year reign until his death in 1545.
Subsequently Islam Shah took over the reins of North India from this fort, but shifted his capital to Gwalior, as it was supposed to be a safer capital in that period, leaving the charge of Delhi and Punjab to his Hindu Governor and military General Hemu. After Islam Shah's death in 1553, Adil Shah Suri took charge of North India and appointed Hemu as the Prime Minister-cum-Chief of Army and himself retired in Chunar fort in eastern UP. According to Abul Fazal, Hemu became virtual king and had all authority of appointments and other decisions making. Hemu was busy in quelling rebellion in east India and this fort remained neglected. Humayun, who was based in Kabul at this time, seized the opportunity to re-capture the citadel and the seat of Delhi in 1555, fifteen years after abandoning it following his defeats at the hands of the Suri Dynasty in the Battles of Chausa and Kannauj. Humayun's reign proved brief thereafter; he died following an accidental fall within the fort complex at Sher Mandal only a year later, in Jan. 1556.[6]
Hearing about re-capture of Delhi by Humayun, Hemu, the Hindu Prime Minister – cum – Chief of Army of Adil Shah, rushed towards Delhi from Bengal, where he had just quelled a rebellion, defeating and killing Muhhamad Shah, the ruler of Bengal. After capturing Agra, Itawah, and Kanpur with relative ease, Hemu, who had won 22 battles spanning entire north India, met and defeated the forces of Akbar, which were led by Tardi Beg Khan, in the Battle for Delhi, which took place in the Tuglaqabad area on 5–6 October 1556. Hemu had his Rajyabhishek or Coronation at Purana Quila on 7 October 1556, declared 'Hindu Raj' in North India, and was bestowed the title of Vikramaditya. Hemu, who later lost his life at the Second battle of Panipat in Nov. 1556, subsequently had his torso hung outside this fort to create terror among Hindus.
Construction
The walls of the Fort rise to a height of 18 metres, traverse about 1.5 km, and have three arched gateways: the Bara Darwaza (Big Gate) facing west, which is still in use today; the south gate, also popularly known as the 'Humayun Gate' (probably so known because it was constructed by Humayun, or perhaps because Humayun's Tomb is visible from there); and lastly, the 'Talaqi Gate', often known as the "forbidden gate". All the gates are double-storeyed sandstone structures flanked by two huge semi-circular bastion towers, decorated with white and coloured-marble inlays and blue tiles. They are replete with detailing, including ornate overhanging balconies, or jharokhas, and are topped by pillared pavilions (chhatris), all features that are reminiscent of Rajasthani architecture as seen in the North and South Gates, and which were amply repeated in future Mughal architecture. Despite the grandeurs of the exterior, few of interior structures have survived except the Qila-i Kuhna Mosque and the Shermandal, both credited to Sher Shah.
Indraprastha
Delhi is thought by some to be located at the site of the legendary city of Indraprastha founded by the Pandavas from Mahabharata period, which is consequently considered the 'First City of Delhi',In support of this, until 1913, a village called Indrapat existed within the fort walls.
Ironically, the dates in support of Indraprastha and said five-thousand-year-old city clash directly with proof found in other sites in India, namely the Indus Valley Civilization.
Cultural cross reference of the larger Indian sphere at the time, negates many modern commonly implied theories.
Excavations
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) carried out excavations at Purana Qila in 1954–55 and again from 1969 to 1973 by B. B. Lal, and its findings and artefacts are exhibited at the Archaeological Museum, Purana Qila. This includes Painted Grey Ware, dating 1000 BC, and various objects and pottery signifying continuous habitation from Mauryan to Sunga, Kushana, Gupta, Rajput, Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods.
History
Purana Qila, situated on the banks of Yamuna, was constructed by the Pandavas as Indraprastha 5,000 years ago, during the period of the Indus Valley civilization. It is where Humayun's capital Din Panah was located. Later it was renovated and named Shergarh by the first Afghan emperor of India, Sher Shah Suri. The Hindu king Hemu was crowned there after defeating Akbar's forces in the Battle of Delhi (1556) on 7 October 1556. The Fort was supposed to be unlucky for rulers who occupied the site; Humayun, Sher Shah Suri, and Hemu all had but relatively brief tenures ensconced there - Humayun on two separate occasions, having lost the fort to Sher Shah only five years after erecting it, and dying within a year of recapturing it 15 years later. Akbar did not rule from here and Shahjahan built a new fort in Delhi known as Lal Qila ("Red Fort").
When Edwin Lutyens designed the new capital of British India, New Delhi in the 1920s, he aligned the central vista, now Rajpath, with Purana Qila. During the Partition of India, in August 1947 the Purana Qila along with the neighbouring Humayun's Tomb, became the site for refuge camps for Muslims migrating to newly founded Pakistan. This included over 12,000 government employees who had opted for service in Pakistan, and between 150,000–200,000 Muslim refugees,who swarmed inside Purana Qila by September 1947, when Indian government took over the management of the two camps. The Purana Qila camp remained functional till early 1948, as the trains to Pakistan waited till October 1947 to start.
In the 1970s, the ramparts of Purana Qila were first used as a backdrop for theatre, when three productions of the National School of Drama were staged here: Tughlaq, Andha Yug and Sultan Razia, directed by Ebrahim Alkazi. In later decades it has been the venue of various important theatre productions, cultural events, and concerts. Today, it is the venue of a daily sound and light presentation after sunset, on the history of the "Seven Cities of Delhi", from Indraprastha through New Delhi.
Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque
The single-domed Qila-i-Kuna Mosque, built by Sher Shah in 1541 is an excellent example of a pre-Mughal design, and an early example of the extensive use of the pointed arch in the region as seen in its five doorways with the 'true' horseshoe-shaped arches. It was designed as a Jami Mosque, or Friday mosque for the Sultan and his courtiers. The prayer hall inside, the single-aisled mosque, measures 51.20m by 14.90m and has five elegant arched prayer niches or mihrabs set in its western wall. Marble in shades of red, white and slate is used for the calligraphic inscriptions on the central iwan, marks a transition from Lodhi to Mughal architecture. At one time, the courtyard had a shallow tank, with a fountain.
A second storey, accessed through staircases from the prayer hall, with a narrow passage running along the rectangular hall, provided space for female courtiers to pray, while the arched doorway on the left wall, framed by ornate jharokas, was reserved for members of the royal family.[18] On a marble slab within the mosque an inscription reads: "As long as there are people on the earth, may this edifice be frequented and people be happy and cheerful in it".[10] Today it is the best preserved building in Purana Qila.
Sher Mandal
The Sher Mandal named for Farid (sher shah) who had tried to finish what was ordered by Babur but had died during the initial phase and so construction was halted until the arrival of Humayun.
This double-storeyed octagonal tower of red sandstone with steep stairs leading up to the roof was intended to be higher than its existing height. Its original builder was Babur who ordered the construction and was used as a personal observatory and library for his son Humayun, finished only after he recaptured the fort. It is also one of the first observatories of Delhi, the first being in Pir Gharib at Hindu Rao at Ridge built in the 14th century by Firoz shah Tughlaq.[clarification needed] The tower is topped by an octagonal chhatri supported by eight pillars and decorated with white marble in typical Mughal style.
Inside there are remnants of the decorative plaster-work and traces of stone-shelving where, presumably, the emperor's books were placed.
This was also the spot where, on 24 January 1556 Humayun fell from the second floor to his death. He slipped while hastening to the evening prayers, following his hobby of astronomical star gazing at the top of this private observatory. He fell headlong down the stairs and died of his injuries two days later. Entry inside the library is now prohibited.
Outlying monuments
Several other monument also lie around the complex, like Kairul Manzil, mosque built by Maham Anga, Akbar's foster-mother, and which was later used as a madarsa. Sher Shah Suri Gate or Lal Darwaza, which was the South Gate to Shergarh, the city he founded, also lies opposite the Purana Qila complex, across Mathura Road, south-east of the Kairul Manzil.
------------------------------------------
亚穆纳河(Yamuna river)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Pron: jəmʊnaː) (Sanskrit and Hindi: यमुना),
sometimes called Jamuna (Hindi: जमुना; Pron: d͡ʒəmʊna:)
The Yamuna is the largest tributary river of the Ganges, (Ganga) in northern India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a height of 6,387 metres on the south western slopes of Banderpooch peaks in the uppermost region of the Lower Himalayas in Uttarakhand, it travels a total length of 1,376 kilometers (855 mi) and has a drainage system of 366,223 square kilometres (141,399 sq mi), 40.2% of the entire Ganges Basin, before merging with the Ganges at Triveni Sangam, Allahabad, the site for the Kumbha Mela every twelve years .
It crosses several states, Uttarakhand, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, passing by Uttarakhand and later Delhi, and meets its tributaries on the way, including Tons, its largest and longest tributary in Uttarakhand, Chambal, which has its own large basin, followed by Sindh, the Betwa, and Ken. Most importantly it creates the highly fertile alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between itself and the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic plain. Nearly 57 million people depend on the Yamuna waters. With an annual flow of about 10,000 cubic billion metres (cbm) and usage of 4,400 cbm (of which irrigation constitutes 96 per cent), the river accounts for more than 70 per cent of Delhi’s water supplies. Just like the Ganges, the Yamuna too is highly venerated in Hinduism and worshipped as goddess Yamuna, throughout its course. In Hindu mythology, she is the daughter of Sun God, Surya, and sister of Yama, the God of Death, hence also known as Yami and according to popular legends, bathing in its sacred waters frees one from the torments of death.[2][3]
The water of Yamuna is of "reasonably good quality" through its length from Yamunotri in the Himalayas to Wazirabad in Delhi, about 375 kilometres (233 mi), where the discharge of waste water through 15 drains between Wazirabad barrage and Okhla barrage renders the river severely polluted after Wazirabad. One official describes the river as a "sewage drain" with biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) values ranging from 14 to 28 mg/l and high coliform content.[4] There are three main sources of pollution in the river, namely households and municipal disposal sites, soil erosion resulting from deforestation occurring to make way for agriculture along with resulting chemical wash-off from fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides and run-off from commercial activity and industrial sites.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Indraprastha ("City of Indra") was the capital of the kingdom led by the Pandavas in the Mahabharata epic. It is often thought to have been located in the region of present-day New Delhi(新德里) but there is no certainty. The city is sometimes also known as Khandavaprastha(甘味城), the name of a forest region on the banks of Yamuna river(亚穆纳河).
History
Indraprastha is referenced in the Mahabharata, a Sanskrit(梵文) Indian text compiled over a period of 800 years from around 400BCE. Primarily a story, it does nonetheless describe events that may in fact have happened. The Mahabharata records Indraprastha as being home to the Pandavas, whose wars with the Kauravas it describes. The location of Indraprastha is uncertain but Purana Qila in present-day New Delhi is frequently cited and has been noted as such in texts as old as the 14th-century CE. Purana Qila is certainly an ancient settlement but archaeological studies performed there since the 1950s[a] have failed to reveal structures and artefacts that would confirm the architectural grandeur and rich lives in the period that the Mahabharata describes. The historian Upinder Singh notes that despite academic debate, "Ultimately, there is no way of conclusively proving or disproving whether the Pandavas or Kauravas ever lived ...".
D. C. Sircar, an epigraphist, believes Indraprastha was a significant city in the Mauryan period, based on analysis of a stone carving found in the Delhi area at Sriniwaspuri which records the reign of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Singh has cast doubt on this interpretation because the inscription does not actually refer to Indraprastha and although "... a place of importance must certainly have been located in the vicinity of the rock edict, exactly which one it was and what it was known as, is uncertain." Similarly, remains, such as an iron pillar, that have been associated with Ashoka are not indubitably so: their composition is atypical and the inscriptions are vague.
As of 2014, the Archaeological Survey of India is continuing excavation in Purana Qila.
------------------------
Purana Qila
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Hindi: पुराना क़िला, Urdu: پُرانا قلعہ, translation: Old Fort)
Purana Qila is one the oldest fort among all forts in Delhi. Its current form was built by the Afghan king Sher Shah Suri, on the same site, perhaps of Indraprastha, believed to be the capital of the Pandavas.
Sher Shah raised the citadel of Purana-Qal'a with an extensive city-area sprawling around it. It seems that the Purana-Qal'a was still incomplete at Sher Shah's death in 1545, and was perhaps completed by his son Islam Shah or Humayun, although it is not certain which parts were built by whom.
It's located at the site of the legendary city of Indraprastha, that was founded by Pandavas on the banks of perennial river Yamuna, which is revered by Hindus since ages, points to the possibility of this site's history dating back to nearly more than 5000 years old. A Kunti Temple inside the Qila also exists, which is believed to be the place where Kunti, the mother of Pandavs lived. Consequently the fort is considered by some, to be 'the first city of Delhi'.
Researchers now confirm that up till 1913, a village called Indrapat existed within the fort walls. Excavations carried out by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at Purana Quila in 1954-55 (trial trenches) and again 1969 to 1973 by its Director, B B Lal have unearthed Painted Grey Ware dating 1000 B.C., and with a continuous cultural sequence from Mauryan to Mughal through Sunga, Kushana, Gupta, Rajput and Sultanate periods, confirming the antiquity of the fort.
Fort in Medieval Period
Fort was called as the inner pitamdel of the city of Dina-panah during Humayun's rule who renovated it in 1533 and completed five years later.Purana Qila and its environs flourished as the "sixth city of Delhi".
The founder of the Suri Dynasty, Sher Shah Suri, defeated Humayun in 1540, naming the fort Shergarh; he added several more structures in the complex during his five-year reign until his death in 1545.
Subsequently Islam Shah took over the reins of North India from this fort, but shifted his capital to Gwalior, as it was supposed to be a safer capital in that period, leaving the charge of Delhi and Punjab to his Hindu Governor and military General Hemu. After Islam Shah's death in 1553, Adil Shah Suri took charge of North India and appointed Hemu as the Prime Minister-cum-Chief of Army and himself retired in Chunar fort in eastern UP. According to Abul Fazal, Hemu became virtual king and had all authority of appointments and other decisions making. Hemu was busy in quelling rebellion in east India and this fort remained neglected. Humayun, who was based in Kabul at this time, seized the opportunity to re-capture the citadel and the seat of Delhi in 1555, fifteen years after abandoning it following his defeats at the hands of the Suri Dynasty in the Battles of Chausa and Kannauj. Humayun's reign proved brief thereafter; he died following an accidental fall within the fort complex at Sher Mandal only a year later, in Jan. 1556.[6]
Hearing about re-capture of Delhi by Humayun, Hemu, the Hindu Prime Minister – cum – Chief of Army of Adil Shah, rushed towards Delhi from Bengal, where he had just quelled a rebellion, defeating and killing Muhhamad Shah, the ruler of Bengal. After capturing Agra, Itawah, and Kanpur with relative ease, Hemu, who had won 22 battles spanning entire north India, met and defeated the forces of Akbar, which were led by Tardi Beg Khan, in the Battle for Delhi, which took place in the Tuglaqabad area on 5–6 October 1556. Hemu had his Rajyabhishek or Coronation at Purana Quila on 7 October 1556, declared 'Hindu Raj' in North India, and was bestowed the title of Vikramaditya. Hemu, who later lost his life at the Second battle of Panipat in Nov. 1556, subsequently had his torso hung outside this fort to create terror among Hindus.
Construction
The walls of the Fort rise to a height of 18 metres, traverse about 1.5 km, and have three arched gateways: the Bara Darwaza (Big Gate) facing west, which is still in use today; the south gate, also popularly known as the 'Humayun Gate' (probably so known because it was constructed by Humayun, or perhaps because Humayun's Tomb is visible from there); and lastly, the 'Talaqi Gate', often known as the "forbidden gate". All the gates are double-storeyed sandstone structures flanked by two huge semi-circular bastion towers, decorated with white and coloured-marble inlays and blue tiles. They are replete with detailing, including ornate overhanging balconies, or jharokhas, and are topped by pillared pavilions (chhatris), all features that are reminiscent of Rajasthani architecture as seen in the North and South Gates, and which were amply repeated in future Mughal architecture. Despite the grandeurs of the exterior, few of interior structures have survived except the Qila-i Kuhna Mosque and the Shermandal, both credited to Sher Shah.
Indraprastha
Delhi is thought by some to be located at the site of the legendary city of Indraprastha founded by the Pandavas from Mahabharata period, which is consequently considered the 'First City of Delhi',In support of this, until 1913, a village called Indrapat existed within the fort walls.
Ironically, the dates in support of Indraprastha and said five-thousand-year-old city clash directly with proof found in other sites in India, namely the Indus Valley Civilization.
Cultural cross reference of the larger Indian sphere at the time, negates many modern commonly implied theories.
Excavations
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) carried out excavations at Purana Qila in 1954–55 and again from 1969 to 1973 by B. B. Lal, and its findings and artefacts are exhibited at the Archaeological Museum, Purana Qila. This includes Painted Grey Ware, dating 1000 BC, and various objects and pottery signifying continuous habitation from Mauryan to Sunga, Kushana, Gupta, Rajput, Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods.
History
Purana Qila, situated on the banks of Yamuna, was constructed by the Pandavas as Indraprastha 5,000 years ago, during the period of the Indus Valley civilization. It is where Humayun's capital Din Panah was located. Later it was renovated and named Shergarh by the first Afghan emperor of India, Sher Shah Suri. The Hindu king Hemu was crowned there after defeating Akbar's forces in the Battle of Delhi (1556) on 7 October 1556. The Fort was supposed to be unlucky for rulers who occupied the site; Humayun, Sher Shah Suri, and Hemu all had but relatively brief tenures ensconced there - Humayun on two separate occasions, having lost the fort to Sher Shah only five years after erecting it, and dying within a year of recapturing it 15 years later. Akbar did not rule from here and Shahjahan built a new fort in Delhi known as Lal Qila ("Red Fort").
When Edwin Lutyens designed the new capital of British India, New Delhi in the 1920s, he aligned the central vista, now Rajpath, with Purana Qila. During the Partition of India, in August 1947 the Purana Qila along with the neighbouring Humayun's Tomb, became the site for refuge camps for Muslims migrating to newly founded Pakistan. This included over 12,000 government employees who had opted for service in Pakistan, and between 150,000–200,000 Muslim refugees,who swarmed inside Purana Qila by September 1947, when Indian government took over the management of the two camps. The Purana Qila camp remained functional till early 1948, as the trains to Pakistan waited till October 1947 to start.
In the 1970s, the ramparts of Purana Qila were first used as a backdrop for theatre, when three productions of the National School of Drama were staged here: Tughlaq, Andha Yug and Sultan Razia, directed by Ebrahim Alkazi. In later decades it has been the venue of various important theatre productions, cultural events, and concerts. Today, it is the venue of a daily sound and light presentation after sunset, on the history of the "Seven Cities of Delhi", from Indraprastha through New Delhi.
Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque
The single-domed Qila-i-Kuna Mosque, built by Sher Shah in 1541 is an excellent example of a pre-Mughal design, and an early example of the extensive use of the pointed arch in the region as seen in its five doorways with the 'true' horseshoe-shaped arches. It was designed as a Jami Mosque, or Friday mosque for the Sultan and his courtiers. The prayer hall inside, the single-aisled mosque, measures 51.20m by 14.90m and has five elegant arched prayer niches or mihrabs set in its western wall. Marble in shades of red, white and slate is used for the calligraphic inscriptions on the central iwan, marks a transition from Lodhi to Mughal architecture. At one time, the courtyard had a shallow tank, with a fountain.
A second storey, accessed through staircases from the prayer hall, with a narrow passage running along the rectangular hall, provided space for female courtiers to pray, while the arched doorway on the left wall, framed by ornate jharokas, was reserved for members of the royal family.[18] On a marble slab within the mosque an inscription reads: "As long as there are people on the earth, may this edifice be frequented and people be happy and cheerful in it".[10] Today it is the best preserved building in Purana Qila.
Sher Mandal
The Sher Mandal named for Farid (sher shah) who had tried to finish what was ordered by Babur but had died during the initial phase and so construction was halted until the arrival of Humayun.
This double-storeyed octagonal tower of red sandstone with steep stairs leading up to the roof was intended to be higher than its existing height. Its original builder was Babur who ordered the construction and was used as a personal observatory and library for his son Humayun, finished only after he recaptured the fort. It is also one of the first observatories of Delhi, the first being in Pir Gharib at Hindu Rao at Ridge built in the 14th century by Firoz shah Tughlaq.[clarification needed] The tower is topped by an octagonal chhatri supported by eight pillars and decorated with white marble in typical Mughal style.
Inside there are remnants of the decorative plaster-work and traces of stone-shelving where, presumably, the emperor's books were placed.
This was also the spot where, on 24 January 1556 Humayun fell from the second floor to his death. He slipped while hastening to the evening prayers, following his hobby of astronomical star gazing at the top of this private observatory. He fell headlong down the stairs and died of his injuries two days later. Entry inside the library is now prohibited.
Outlying monuments
Several other monument also lie around the complex, like Kairul Manzil, mosque built by Maham Anga, Akbar's foster-mother, and which was later used as a madarsa. Sher Shah Suri Gate or Lal Darwaza, which was the South Gate to Shergarh, the city he founded, also lies opposite the Purana Qila complex, across Mathura Road, south-east of the Kairul Manzil.
------------------------------------------
亚穆纳河(Yamuna river)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Pron: jəmʊnaː) (Sanskrit and Hindi: यमुना),
sometimes called Jamuna (Hindi: जमुना; Pron: d͡ʒəmʊna:)
The Yamuna is the largest tributary river of the Ganges, (Ganga) in northern India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a height of 6,387 metres on the south western slopes of Banderpooch peaks in the uppermost region of the Lower Himalayas in Uttarakhand, it travels a total length of 1,376 kilometers (855 mi) and has a drainage system of 366,223 square kilometres (141,399 sq mi), 40.2% of the entire Ganges Basin, before merging with the Ganges at Triveni Sangam, Allahabad, the site for the Kumbha Mela every twelve years .
It crosses several states, Uttarakhand, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, passing by Uttarakhand and later Delhi, and meets its tributaries on the way, including Tons, its largest and longest tributary in Uttarakhand, Chambal, which has its own large basin, followed by Sindh, the Betwa, and Ken. Most importantly it creates the highly fertile alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between itself and the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic plain. Nearly 57 million people depend on the Yamuna waters. With an annual flow of about 10,000 cubic billion metres (cbm) and usage of 4,400 cbm (of which irrigation constitutes 96 per cent), the river accounts for more than 70 per cent of Delhi’s water supplies. Just like the Ganges, the Yamuna too is highly venerated in Hinduism and worshipped as goddess Yamuna, throughout its course. In Hindu mythology, she is the daughter of Sun God, Surya, and sister of Yama, the God of Death, hence also known as Yami and according to popular legends, bathing in its sacred waters frees one from the torments of death.[2][3]
The water of Yamuna is of "reasonably good quality" through its length from Yamunotri in the Himalayas to Wazirabad in Delhi, about 375 kilometres (233 mi), where the discharge of waste water through 15 drains between Wazirabad barrage and Okhla barrage renders the river severely polluted after Wazirabad. One official describes the river as a "sewage drain" with biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) values ranging from 14 to 28 mg/l and high coliform content.[4] There are three main sources of pollution in the river, namely households and municipal disposal sites, soil erosion resulting from deforestation occurring to make way for agriculture along with resulting chemical wash-off from fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides and run-off from commercial activity and industrial sites.
