American War of Independence美国独立战争
American War of Independence
Main articles: American Revolution and American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War was the culmination of the civil and political American Revolution resulting from the American Enlightenment. Brought to a head over the lack of American representation in Parliament, which was seen as a denial of their rights as Englishmen and often popularly focused on direct taxes levied by Parliament on the colonies without their consent, the colonists resisted the imposition of direct rule after the Boston Tea Party. Creating self-governing provinces, they circumvented the British ruling apparatus in each colony by 1774. Armed conflict between British regulars and colonial militiamen broke out at the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775. After petitions to the Crown for intervention with Parliament were ignored, the rebel leaders were declared traitors by the Crown and a year of fighting ensued. The colonies declared their independence in July 1776, listing grievances against the British king and legislature while asking the support of the populace. Among George's other offences, the Declaration charged, "He has abdicated Government here ... He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people." The gilded equestrian statue of George III in New York was pulled down.[54] The British captured the city in 1776, but lost Boston, and the grand strategic plan of invading from Canada and cutting off New England failed with the surrender of the British Lieutenant-General John Burgoyne at the Battle of Saratoga.
George III is often accused of obstinately trying to keep Great Britain at war with the revolutionaries in America, despite the opinions of his own ministers. In the words of the Victorian author George Trevelyan, the King was determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal."[55] The King wanted to "keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse".[56] However, more recent historians defend George by saying in the context of the times no king would willingly surrender such a large territory,[10][57] and his conduct was far less ruthless than contemporary monarchs in Europe.[58] After Saratoga, both Parliament and the British people were in favour of the war; recruitment ran at high levels and although political opponents were vocal, they remained a small minority.[10][59] With the setbacks in America, Prime Minister Lord North asked to transfer power to Lord Chatham, whom he thought more capable, but George refused to do so; he suggested instead that Chatham serve as a subordinate minister in Lord North's administration, but Chatham refused to cooperate. He died later in the same year.[60] In early 1778, France (Britain's chief rival) signed a treaty of alliance with the United States and the conflict escalated. The United States and France were soon joined by Spain and the Dutch Republic, while Britain had no major allies of its own. Lord Gower and Lord Weymouth both resigned from the government. Lord North again requested that he also be allowed to resign, but he stayed in office at George III's insistence.[61] Opposition to the costly war was increasing, and in June 1780 contributed to disturbances in London known as the Gordon Riots.[62]
As late as the Siege of Charleston in 1780, Loyalists could still believe in their eventual victory, as British troops inflicted heavy defeats on the Continental forces at the Battle of Camden and the Battle of Guilford Court House.[63] In late 1781, the news of Lord Cornwallis's surrender at the Siege of Yorktown reached London; Lord North's parliamentary support ebbed away and he resigned the following year. The King drafted an abdication notice, which was never delivered,[57][64] finally accepted the defeat in North America, and authorised peace negotiations. The Treaties of Paris, by which Britain recognised the independence of the American states and returned Florida to Spain, were signed in 1782 and 1783.[65] When John Adams was appointed American Minister to London in 1785, George had become resigned to the new relationship between his country and the former colonies. He told Adams, "I was the last to consent to the separation; but the separation having been made and having become inevitable, I have always said, as I say now, that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United States as an independent power
美国独立战争因大不列颠常规军队与殖民地民兵在1775年4月于新英格兰发生武装冲突而爆发。经过一年的战斗，大不列颠在北美的殖民地在1776年7月宣布从大不列颠国王独立，并建立“美利坚合众国”。而殖民地的独立宣言也对大不列颠国王、立法机关及全体国民提出多项控诉，当中包括指责乔治“抛弃此地之政务……掠夺我海域，践踏沿岸，焚烧城镇，残民以逞”等等，这些评价传到乔治后，皆使他感到愤慨不平。在战事中，大不列颠军队曾在1776年成功攻陷纽约市，但后来英方陆军中将约翰·伯戈因在萨拉托加战役中率兵投降，却很大程度导致英方从加拿大反攻的大计以失败告终。到1778年，法国（大不列颠的主要竞争对手）与新生的美国签订一份友好条约，使英方形势更为严峻，此时诺斯勋爵提出由查塔姆勋爵接任首相，但被乔治三世加以拒绝，并提出反建议要查塔姆勋爵入阁供职，与诺斯勋爵合作。查塔姆最终拒绝合作，不久以后在同年逝世[24]，其时大不列颠与法国正处于战争状态，到1779年更与西班牙宣战。
尽管他的大臣并不赞同，但乔治三世仍固执地要大不列颠与美国的革命军战斗到底，而部份大臣如古尔勋爵和韦茅斯勋爵等等都不愿为这场战争有伤尊严而纷纷辞职。首相诺斯勋爵与他的同僚也有同样的意见，并曾将这些意见告知乔治，但他最后没有跟随辞职。乔治到后来打消了继续增兵镇压美国的念头，并表示“想留住宾夕凡尼亚是开玩笑”，又指已经没有希望重夺新英格兰，然而，他仍然下决心“永不承认美国独立，又承诺永恒地以永无休止的持久战争惩罚他们的坚不服从”[25]。乔治的计划是要留住驻防于纽约、罗德岛、加拿大及佛罗里达的30,000名士兵，其余部队则负责攻击活跃于西印度的法国及西班牙军队。为了惩罚美国人，他又计划要破坏他们的沿海商港、炸毁他们的码头、劫掠与焚烧他们的沿海城镇（如康乃狄克的新伦敦）、以及解除对印第安人的管制，让他们袭击殖民地边区的平民。乔治还相信这些行动可有效地鼓动当地的保皇党、分裂大陆会议、和“持续地使造反者感到烦扰、不安和困乏，终有一日，更将不满和失望自然及无可避免地转化为忏悔和自责”，从而乞求由他重新作出管治[26]。可是，乔治三世这些计划却对保皇党及忠心的印第安人造成破坏，而一场持久的战争更让法、西两国随时有机可乘，组织联合舰队，进击不列颠群岛，从而置伦敦于险境。
在1781年，英方主将康沃利斯勋爵在约克镇之围兵败投降的消息传到伦敦后，诺斯勋爵在议会的支持度急降，结果在翌年辞任首相。经诺斯勋爵劝服后，乔治三世打消了退位的念头[27]，而且还接受了大不列颠在北美洲落败的事实，决定授权举行和谈。《巴黎条约》及《凡尔赛条约》两和约在1783年获得确认，标志着美国独立战争的正式结束，这两条条约，前者要大不列颠承认美国，而后者则要大不列颠放弃佛罗里达与西班牙，以及容许法国人通过纽芬兰对开的航道。在1785年，美国的约翰·亚当斯成为首任美国驻不列颠部长，这时的乔治三世已顺从于世界格局，并接受了英、美两国的新关系，他对亚当斯说到：“我是最后一位同意（英、美）分开的，但我将是第一位去迎接美国作为独立政权的友谊哩”。
Main articles: American Revolution and American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War was the culmination of the civil and political American Revolution resulting from the American Enlightenment. Brought to a head over the lack of American representation in Parliament, which was seen as a denial of their rights as Englishmen and often popularly focused on direct taxes levied by Parliament on the colonies without their consent, the colonists resisted the imposition of direct rule after the Boston Tea Party. Creating self-governing provinces, they circumvented the British ruling apparatus in each colony by 1774. Armed conflict between British regulars and colonial militiamen broke out at the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775. After petitions to the Crown for intervention with Parliament were ignored, the rebel leaders were declared traitors by the Crown and a year of fighting ensued. The colonies declared their independence in July 1776, listing grievances against the British king and legislature while asking the support of the populace. Among George's other offences, the Declaration charged, "He has abdicated Government here ... He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people." The gilded equestrian statue of George III in New York was pulled down.[54] The British captured the city in 1776, but lost Boston, and the grand strategic plan of invading from Canada and cutting off New England failed with the surrender of the British Lieutenant-General John Burgoyne at the Battle of Saratoga.
George III is often accused of obstinately trying to keep Great Britain at war with the revolutionaries in America, despite the opinions of his own ministers. In the words of the Victorian author George Trevelyan, the King was determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal."[55] The King wanted to "keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse".[56] However, more recent historians defend George by saying in the context of the times no king would willingly surrender such a large territory,[10][57] and his conduct was far less ruthless than contemporary monarchs in Europe.[58] After Saratoga, both Parliament and the British people were in favour of the war; recruitment ran at high levels and although political opponents were vocal, they remained a small minority.[10][59] With the setbacks in America, Prime Minister Lord North asked to transfer power to Lord Chatham, whom he thought more capable, but George refused to do so; he suggested instead that Chatham serve as a subordinate minister in Lord North's administration, but Chatham refused to cooperate. He died later in the same year.[60] In early 1778, France (Britain's chief rival) signed a treaty of alliance with the United States and the conflict escalated. The United States and France were soon joined by Spain and the Dutch Republic, while Britain had no major allies of its own. Lord Gower and Lord Weymouth both resigned from the government. Lord North again requested that he also be allowed to resign, but he stayed in office at George III's insistence.[61] Opposition to the costly war was increasing, and in June 1780 contributed to disturbances in London known as the Gordon Riots.[62]
As late as the Siege of Charleston in 1780, Loyalists could still believe in their eventual victory, as British troops inflicted heavy defeats on the Continental forces at the Battle of Camden and the Battle of Guilford Court House.[63] In late 1781, the news of Lord Cornwallis's surrender at the Siege of Yorktown reached London; Lord North's parliamentary support ebbed away and he resigned the following year. The King drafted an abdication notice, which was never delivered,[57][64] finally accepted the defeat in North America, and authorised peace negotiations. The Treaties of Paris, by which Britain recognised the independence of the American states and returned Florida to Spain, were signed in 1782 and 1783.[65] When John Adams was appointed American Minister to London in 1785, George had become resigned to the new relationship between his country and the former colonies. He told Adams, "I was the last to consent to the separation; but the separation having been made and having become inevitable, I have always said, as I say now, that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United States as an independent power
美国独立战争因大不列颠常规军队与殖民地民兵在1775年4月于新英格兰发生武装冲突而爆发。经过一年的战斗，大不列颠在北美的殖民地在1776年7月宣布从大不列颠国王独立，并建立“美利坚合众国”。而殖民地的独立宣言也对大不列颠国王、立法机关及全体国民提出多项控诉，当中包括指责乔治“抛弃此地之政务……掠夺我海域，践踏沿岸，焚烧城镇，残民以逞”等等，这些评价传到乔治后，皆使他感到愤慨不平。在战事中，大不列颠军队曾在1776年成功攻陷纽约市，但后来英方陆军中将约翰·伯戈因在萨拉托加战役中率兵投降，却很大程度导致英方从加拿大反攻的大计以失败告终。到1778年，法国（大不列颠的主要竞争对手）与新生的美国签订一份友好条约，使英方形势更为严峻，此时诺斯勋爵提出由查塔姆勋爵接任首相，但被乔治三世加以拒绝，并提出反建议要查塔姆勋爵入阁供职，与诺斯勋爵合作。查塔姆最终拒绝合作，不久以后在同年逝世[24]，其时大不列颠与法国正处于战争状态，到1779年更与西班牙宣战。
尽管他的大臣并不赞同，但乔治三世仍固执地要大不列颠与美国的革命军战斗到底，而部份大臣如古尔勋爵和韦茅斯勋爵等等都不愿为这场战争有伤尊严而纷纷辞职。首相诺斯勋爵与他的同僚也有同样的意见，并曾将这些意见告知乔治，但他最后没有跟随辞职。乔治到后来打消了继续增兵镇压美国的念头，并表示“想留住宾夕凡尼亚是开玩笑”，又指已经没有希望重夺新英格兰，然而，他仍然下决心“永不承认美国独立，又承诺永恒地以永无休止的持久战争惩罚他们的坚不服从”[25]。乔治的计划是要留住驻防于纽约、罗德岛、加拿大及佛罗里达的30,000名士兵，其余部队则负责攻击活跃于西印度的法国及西班牙军队。为了惩罚美国人，他又计划要破坏他们的沿海商港、炸毁他们的码头、劫掠与焚烧他们的沿海城镇（如康乃狄克的新伦敦）、以及解除对印第安人的管制，让他们袭击殖民地边区的平民。乔治还相信这些行动可有效地鼓动当地的保皇党、分裂大陆会议、和“持续地使造反者感到烦扰、不安和困乏，终有一日，更将不满和失望自然及无可避免地转化为忏悔和自责”，从而乞求由他重新作出管治[26]。可是，乔治三世这些计划却对保皇党及忠心的印第安人造成破坏，而一场持久的战争更让法、西两国随时有机可乘，组织联合舰队，进击不列颠群岛，从而置伦敦于险境。
在1781年，英方主将康沃利斯勋爵在约克镇之围兵败投降的消息传到伦敦后，诺斯勋爵在议会的支持度急降，结果在翌年辞任首相。经诺斯勋爵劝服后，乔治三世打消了退位的念头[27]，而且还接受了大不列颠在北美洲落败的事实，决定授权举行和谈。《巴黎条约》及《凡尔赛条约》两和约在1783年获得确认，标志着美国独立战争的正式结束，这两条条约，前者要大不列颠承认美国，而后者则要大不列颠放弃佛罗里达与西班牙，以及容许法国人通过纽芬兰对开的航道。在1785年，美国的约翰·亚当斯成为首任美国驻不列颠部长，这时的乔治三世已顺从于世界格局，并接受了英、美两国的新关系，他对亚当斯说到：“我是最后一位同意（英、美）分开的，但我将是第一位去迎接美国作为独立政权的友谊哩”。
